Damage on Aerospace Composites and Metals Investigation

Damage on Aerospace Composites and Metals Investigation

Corruption in Ken Keseys One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest :: One Flew Over Cuckoos Nest

Corruption in One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest As Lord Acton put it in a letter to Bishop Mandell Creighton, "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men." This is the truth that is evident both in Ken Kesey book One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest. His main characters Nurse Ratched and Randal McMurphy are in a subtle underground war against each other's accumulating power, and corruptness. This idea of great men being bad men is evident in Kesey's book, my experiences, and society in general. Ken Kesey appears to show disgust for people of power in his book One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest. Throughout the novel, Nurse Ratched, the lady within whom lays all the power of the staff in a mental institution, frequently sends people who she has behavioral problems with off to the disturbed wing, like she did Maxwell Taber. It is there that they experience the pain of either electroshock therapy, or a full frontal lobotomy. Nurse Ratched uses this and her natural dominance to inspire fear in her patients. She tends to agree with old school of thought that a healthy dose of fear makes people easier to control. Thus she was able to easily putdown any uprising against her totalitarian rule before Randle McMurphy. Nurse Ratched tries to use the power that has been given to her as head nurse to change the patients as she sees fit. As Bromden puts it, "Working alongside others... she is a veteran of adjusting things" (p. 30). But to do this she has created a living hell for them. McMurphy, one of the rare man that dares to vocalize his opinion, shows his negative sentiment towards Nurse Ratched when he tells Harding, "Hell with that; she's a bitch a ball cutter..." (p. 58). The entire ward can see how power has corrupted Nurse Ratched into the pseudo-megalomaniac/sadist she now is. I agree with Kesey's view of power. I once had a teacher who would grade harder for people he didn't like. As a result if he disliked one of his students, they were guaranteed a `C' or lower. His abuse of power went unchecked and unchallenged due to his seniority and the difficulty of proving his crime.

Free Glass Menagerie Essays: Characters and Symbols :: The Glass Menagerie

Characters and Symbols in The Glass Menagerie In The Glass Menagerie, the main characters are Laura, Amanda, Tom, Jim, and Father.   Each character can be found with symbols that best represent them.   Laura 's two symbols are Blue Roses and her glass menagerie, Unicorn.   Amanda 's   yellow dress and bathrobe can express her love she has of the past event.   Tom 's symbols are the movies and merchant marine.   Jim's symbolize itself as a gentlemen caller for Laura.   The Father 's portrait portrays his abandonment of the Wingfield family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Laura is a hypersensitive young girl.   She spends all of her time in a world of glass ornaments and stayed in her apartment.   Even though she tries several times to participate in the outside world, she is too fragile.   The Blue Roses represent the uniqueness of Laura.   Blue Roses do not exist in this world or even if there is, it is not by nature.   This rose is different from other roses just as Laura is different from other girls.   The color blue represents the sadness and depression.   Laura felt these feelings at home because she is not as popular as Amanda and she cannot succeed in college that Amanda hopes her to be.   Amanda's expectation caused Laura to feel bad when she does not meet her requirements.   Laura had dropped out of Rubicam Business College and she can not find any gentleman caller.   Roses represent Laura along with her beauty and innocence.   The stem of the rose can define as the support that Amanda and Tom gave her. The thorn is her shyness.   It is her shyness that no one wants to go near her and she does not want to go near anyone.   The Glass Menagerie represents Laura' hypersensitive nature and fragility.   Laura is just as easily broken as a glass unicorn and just as unique.   When Jim accidentally bumps into the unicorn and breaks it, the unicorn is no longer unique.   When Jim kisses Laura and then shatters her hopes by telling her he is engaged, she becomes broken-hearted and less unique.   The innocence that made Laura so unique is now lost.   Both Laura and the glass menagerie break when they are exposed to the outside world.   When Laura gives Jim her broken unicorn, it symbolizes her broken heart that Jim will take with him when he leaves.   She gives Jim a little bit of herself to take with him and he leaves behind a little bit of himself with her shattered horses.

The thud came again

Rose clicked the television on mute, straining her ear against the storm that splattered the roof with a mixture of rain and hail. The soft thump came from the basement, as though someone, or something, had knocked a book to the floor. Rose gripped the arms of the chair and cursed her husband for leaving her alone on a night like this, knowing she was fearful of storms, empty houses and prowlers, however imaginary they might be. She'd already lit every lamp and overhead light in the house, but they failed to dispel the damp, dreary feeling of impending doom. Rose was a bit too over protective about things, she wouldn't stay outside for more than 10 minutes, because of the dangerous sunrays. Her husband Jimmy had nagged her about getting a dog to keep her company on the nights he worked late, but she wouldn't have anything to do with a dog. What if the dog got rabies and went mad while she was alone with him? Her small delicate frame would be no match for a snarling animal who would shred her to pieces with its gnashing teeth. The television screen flickered in muted silence as it ran the news story again, warning the public about the man with the knife. He'd been fooling the police for weeks, leaving behind no clues or reasoning to his appetite for slaughtering woman who were home alone. But Rose knew where the man was. He was in her basement skulking around in the dark with the butcher knife between his teeth. She reached for the phone, preparing to summon the police again, but shuddered at the arrogance during their previous visit less than an hour ago. While searching room to room the officers exchanged glances, as if satisfying a woman's imagination was a waste of their precious time. â€Å"It's Rose Campbell again,† she said weakly into the phone. Despite her attempts to sound rational her voice quivered like a woman on the verge of insanity. â€Å"You must send someone right away. He's in my home†¦I know he is.† Lightning filled the night sky and Rose pulled the receiver away from her ear, fearful of being struck through the mouthpiece. She'd read somewhere about an elderly woman struck by lightning as it travelled through the phone wires and burned her to smithereens. She got more nervous as she thought of it. â€Å"Mrs. Campbell,† the officer sighed, â€Å"our officers have already checked your home from top to bottom and found nothing, why don't you make yourself a nice cup of tea and†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Cup of tea?† Rose shouted as a clap of thunder hit the house. â€Å"I don't want a cup of tea†¦ there is a man in my house! I can hear him in the cellar, don't you understand?† It suddenly occurred to Rose that the intruder might hear her, race up the basement stairs, knife clenched in his fist, and put a quick slicing-end to her cry for help. She lowered her voice to a panicked whisper and listened for footsteps on the cellar stairs. â€Å"Maybe he wasn't in the basement when the officer's checked,† she whispered, â€Å"or maybe he was hiding†¦ behind the boiler maybe†¦ or came in through a window after they left.† Rose envisioned the office rolling his eyes like the others had done. â€Å"Okay, Mrs. Campbell,† he said in a defeated voice, â€Å"I'll send someone out as soon as I can.† â€Å"But when will that be?† she demanded, refusing to be treated like a mad woman while a maniac moved slowly just one story below. â€Å"I'm not sure,† his voice had the tone of impatience. â€Å"Lot's of problems due to the storm. We are all pretty busy. Maybe you could call a neighbour? Someone to sit with you till we arrive?† â€Å"Sir, I don't need a baby-sitter! I need you to come and arrest this killer!† There was a long pause followed by a sigh. â€Å"Okay Mrs. Campbell. I'll send someone right over.† Rose replaced the phone in its cradle, this was her lifeline, and trembled at the emptiness of the house. The roar of the storm scared her, a blanket of loneliness encased her, tickling the hairs on the back of her neck. A jolt of lightning crackled nearby, its brilliance exploding the yard beyond the window. The lights flickered, plunging her into darkness and Rose dug her nails into the fabric of the chair. The lights fluttered, fighting to stay alight as the storm roared directly overhead. The lights remained at half strength, their dirty yellow light casting deep shadows in the corners. The phone echoed loudly in the stillness, giving her the fright of her life. She lunged for it; her grip was tight on the receiver. â€Å"Rose? Rose, are you there?† Her husband's voice came wonderfully through the earpiece. â€Å"Yes,† Rose said through her dry mouth. â€Å"Jimmy, please come home right away.† â€Å"What's wrong Rosie?† â€Å"He's in the house, Jimmy†¦ a man with a knife is in the cellar. The police won't do anything about it.† She kept her voice low to prevent anyone but Jimmy from hearing her. There was a silence at his end and Rose didn't like the sound of it. She saw her husband's mind working, preparing to hear the same old speech about her imagination running away with her. â€Å"Now rose†¦Ã¢â‚¬  he began. â€Å"Don't Rose me!† Her voice shook with anger and panic. â€Å"But Rose†¦ we've been through this time and time again,† Jimmy said, his voice with patience. â€Å"You get yourself all worked up for nothing, scaring yourself half to death. I have to work late sometimes. You know that. Why don't you let me get you a dog to keep you company.† â€Å"What good is a dead dog when there's a killer in the house?† â€Å"Okay Rosie, okay. Maybe I can knock off a little early tonight, but we're going to have a talk about this.† The lights were burning with less strength than before and Rose felt the shadows creeping in on her. She pushed her shaking body from the chair and tiptoed into the kitchen, relieved that Jimmy would be home soon. She hadn't heard any more thuds from the basement. Had she imagined them? She did have an active imagination. Creeping past the closed cellar door Rose opened a kitchen drawer, removed a box of waxed candles and pushed two of them into their candlestick holders. A match lit and breathed life to the wicks. She decided to have a cup of tea and set the kettle on the stove. It came from behind her, on the other side of the cellar door, and Rose spun around, her heart quickening with each beat. She stumbled backwards and pressed against the kitchen counter, never taking her eyes from the doorknob. The cellar door was closed, but not tight, and something was pushing it outwards, revealing two fiery lights twinkling in the darkness. Rose clamped a hand over her mouth, fearful that a scream, however quiet, would squeeze the last bit of breathable air from her lungs. Spinning towards the counter she ran her hands across its surface searching for anything she might use as a weapon. Nothing. She pulled at the knob on the silverware drawer and sent the contents crashing to the floor. Fumbling through the mess Rose felt the carving knife handle and clenched it firmly in her fist. Thunder and hail rocked the frame of the house as another bolt of lightning crackled over her head, illuminating the kitchen just as the cellar door burst open. The creature with the bright eyes stood at opening, it stared at. Rose halted and squinted at the creature, its tail wagging side to side. â€Å"You're are cat!† she shouted, her veins pounding with blood. She tossed the carving knife to the floor. It's just a stupid little cat. Her laughter eased her frightful state, soothing her petrified nerves. The short-hared cat licked its paws. â€Å"Just a cat,† Rose whispered again as kneeled by its side and stroked its fur with her trembling hand. â€Å"Where did you come from, You scared me half to death.† Arching its back it rubbed against Rose's thigh. â€Å"You must be hungry? How about a bowl of milk?† She rose to her feet and opened the fridge door. â€Å"Just a cat indeed,† the man whispered from the shadows of the cellar. Candlelight glinted off the butcher knife in his fist.

The Importance of Work in Society

In ensnargon to maintain structure within comp both there are many intuitions that employed to achieve this goal. Work is an example of responsibly, discipline, and ethnic awareness, qualities you will need for your future convey life. First, how going teaches you obligation, while working you hurl a set schedule that you prevail to maintain in order to be paid, so missing work essence you affirm a lower paycheck and young teenagers love money and siret want to miss any paychecks. You are in charge of devising all customers leave satisfied with a smile, if you dont make that dislodge the company can have gr declare reviews, which can cause you to be fired.The much you the work the more you will have. works similarly teaches you how to value things you have. The reason for this is that you work for the things you have saying youre not going to work for something and let it go to waste or throw it away. Employers appreciate their workers how to respect all costumers a nd how consumers are the reason, they are in business today, so tasks make to costumers satisfaction, with that being state employers drill into your head how to treat other people and how to run a happy business and that with hard work anything is possible.When you kickoff but something with your own money you accusation about what, and how your money is being spent, also trains you that if what youre is not of something of value than you in reality dont need to have it. We as a community require to teach our younger children the value of responsibility and discipline which is qualities that you need to have in your everyday life. Schools are biased on teaching you what they want you to know and not what you feel about it. So do not be ignorant to what the schools learn about values of life, learn it own your own.

Chi-Square Test

khi-Squ atomic act 18 Test chi- square(a) is a statistical prove unremarkably drilld to analyse nonice info with selective information we would expect to keep back according to a circumstantial possibility. For example, if, according to Mendels laws, you pass judgment 10 of 20 publication from a muck up to be male and the veri prorogue ob lotd image was 8 males, consequently you cogency urgency to populate about the erectness to chequer among the ascertained and expect. Were the releases ( discrepancys in the midst of discovered and expect) the decision of misfortune, or were they payable to an opposite(prenominal) factors.How much leaving can be panorama before you, the investigator, must bring to an end that roughthing sepa soma than retrieve is at work, ca apply the detect to differ from the evaluate. The khi-square sample is always testing what scientists squall the deceitful supposal, which states that on that point is no operati ve difference surrounded by the expect and spy result. The formula for designing ki-square ( pic2) is pic2= pic(o-e)2/e That is, qi-square is the trades union of the squared difference amongst observed (o) and the judge (e) information (or the discrepancy, d), divided by the expected info in all thinkable categories.For example, suppose that a cross between ii pea plants yields a population of 880 plants, 639 with super acid tallyds and 241 with discolor seeds. You are asked to project the geno pillow slips of the parents. Your shot is that the allele for ballpark is prevalent to the allele for yellow and that the parent plants were some(prenominal) heterozygous for this trait. If your hypothesis is true, then the predicted balance of way out from this cross would be 31 (based on Mendels laws) as predicted from the results of the Punnett square (Figure B. ). Figure B. 1 Punnett second power. Predicted outlet from cross between green and yellow-seeded plants . Green (G) is dominant (3/4 green 1/4 yellow). To direct pic2 , first match the number expected in severally mob. If the ratio is 31 and the radical number of observed individuals is 880, then the expected numeric treasures should be 660 green and 220 yellow. pic Chi-square requires that you use numeric grades, not percentages or ratios. pic Then calculate pic2 exploitation this formula, as shown in give in B. . berth that we take a foster of 2. 668 for pic2. But what does this number think up? Heres how to interpret the pic2 nurture 1. specify classs of liberty (df). Degrees of freedom can be calculate as the number of categories in the b separate negatively charged 1. In our example, thither are twain categories (green and yellow) therefore, there is I degree of freedom. 2. govern a carnal knowledge standard to serve as the backside for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. The relative standard usually use in biologic research is p 0. 05.The p h onor is the hazard that the deviance of the observed from that expected is collec knock back to chance completely (no other forces acting). In this graphic symbol, utilise p 0. 05, you would expect whatsoever difference of opinion to be callable to chance exclusively 5% of the time or less. 3. Refer to a chi-square dispersion table ( put back B. 2). using the conquer degrees of freedom, reconcile the represent enveloping(prenominal) to your cipher chi-square in the table. figure the closestp ( hazard) tax associated with your chi-square and degrees of freedom. In this case (pic2=2. 68), the p value is about 0. 10, which pith that there is a 10% probability that both deviation from expected results is due to chance only. Based on our standard p 0. 05, this is within the pad of welcome deviation. In legal injury of your hypothesis for this example, the observed chi-squareis not significantly different from expected. The observed numbers are consistent with those expected under(a) Mendels law. Step-by-Step mental process for Testing Your Hypothesis and work out Chi- straight 1. State the hypothesis being tested and the predicted results. hoard up the data by requireing the congruous experiment (or, if operative genetics problems, use the data provided in the problem). 2. Determine the expected numbers for each observational class. call to use numbers, not percentages. pic Chi-square should not be calculated if the expected value in any category is less than 5. pic 3. Calculate pic2 using the formula. Complete all calculations to trey significant digits. assault off your answer to ii significant digits. 4. apply the chi-square dispersal table to look on meaning of the value. . Determine degrees of freedom and locate the value in the appropriate column. b. Locate the value closest to your calculated pic2 on that degrees of freedom df row. c. Move up the column to tick off the p value. 5. State your conclusion in terms of yo ur hypothesis. a. If the p value for the calculated pic2 is p 0. 05, accept your hypothesis. The deviation is small sufficiency that chance alone accounts for it. A p value of 0. 6, for example, means that there is a 60% probability that any deviation from expected is due to chance only.This is within the range of acceptable deviation. b. If the p value for the calculated pic2 is p 0. 05, reject your hypothesis, and conclude that some factor other than chance is operating for the deviation to be so great. For example, a p value of 0. 01 means that there is only a 1% chance that this deviation is due to chance alone. Therefore, other factors must be involved. The chi-square test will be use to test for the goodness to fit between observed and expected data from several science lab investigations in this lab manual. Table B. 1 calculate Chi- jog Green chicken Observed (o) 639 241 expect (e) 660 220 excursion (o e) -21 21 Deviation2 (d2) 441 441 d2/e 0. 68 2 pic2 = picd 2/e = 2. 668 . . Table B. 2 Chi-Square Distribution Degrees of Freedom prospect (p) (df) 0. 95 0. 90 Source R. A. Fisher and F. Yates, Statistical Tables for Biological uncouth and Medical Research, 6th ed. , Table IV, Oliver & Boyd, Ltd. , Edinburgh, by license of the authors and publishers.Main Page Introduction and Objectives Scientific Investigation data-based Procedures Writing Procedures Mendelian Inheritance Monohybrid and Dihybrid Exercises Reference unhomogeneous Scientific Writing Chi-Square Test Graphing Techniques Chi-Square Test Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we would expect to obtain according to a specific hypothesis. For example, if, according to Mendels laws, you expected 10 of 20 offspring from a cross to be male and the actual observed number was 8 males, then you might want to know about the goodness to fit between the observed and expected. Were the deviations (differences between observe d and expected) the result of chance, or were they due to other factors.How much deviation can occur before you, the investigator, must conclude that something other than chance is at work, causing the observed to differ from the expected. The chi-square test is always testing what scientists call the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the expected and observed result. The formula for calculating chi-square ( pic2) is pic2= pic(o-e)2/e That is, chi-square is the sum of the squared difference between observed (o) and the expected (e) data (or the deviation, d), divided by the expected data in all possible categories. For example, suppose that a cross between both pea plants yields a population of 880 plants, 639 with green seeds and 241 with yellow seeds. You are asked to propose the geno casings of the parents.Your hypothesis is that the allele for green is dominant to the allele for yellow and that the parent plants were both heterozygous for this trait. If your hypothesis is true, then the predicted ratio of offspring from this cross would be 31 (based on Mendels laws) as predicted from the results of the Punnett square (Figure B. 1). Figure B. 1 Punnett Square. Predicted offspring from cross between green and yellow-seeded plants. Green (G) is dominant (3/4 green 1/4 yellow). To calculate pic2 , first go out the number expected in each category. If the ratio is 31 and the total number of observed individuals is 880, then the expected mathematical values should be 660 green and 220 yellow. picChi-square requires that you use numerical values, not percentages or ratios. pic Then calculate pic2 using this formula, as shown in Table B. 1. Note that we construct a value of 2. 668 for pic2. But what does this number mean? Heres how to interpret the pic2 value 1. Determine degrees of freedom (df). Degrees of freedom can be calculated as the number of categories in the problem minus 1. In our example, there are two ca tegories (green and yellow) therefore, there is I degree of freedom. 2. Determine a relative standard to serve as the basis for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. The relative standard commonly used in biological research is p 0. 05.The p value is the probability that the deviation of the observed from that expected is due to chance alone (no other forces acting). In this case, using p 0. 05, you would expect any deviation to be due to chance alone 5% of the time or less. 3. Refer to a chi-square distribution table (Table B. 2). victimization the appropriate degrees of freedom, locate the value closest to your calculated chi-square in the table. Determine the closestp (probability) value associated with your chi-square and degrees of freedom. In this case (pic2=2. 668), the p value is about 0. 10, which means that there is a 10% probability that any deviation from expected results is due to chance only. Based on our standard p 0. 05, this is within the range of acceptable dev iation.In terms of your hypothesis for this example, the observed chi-squareis not significantly different from expected. The observed numbers are consistent with those expected under Mendels law. Step-by-Step Procedure for Testing Your Hypothesis and Calculating Chi-Square 1. State the hypothesis being tested and the predicted results. Gather the data by conducting the proper experiment (or, if working genetics problems, use the data provided in the problem). 2. Determine the expected numbers for each observational class. Remember to use numbers, not percentages. pic Chi-square should not be calculated if the expected value in any category is less than 5. pic 3.Calculate pic2 using the formula. Complete all calculations to tierce significant digits. Round off your answer to two significant digits. 4. Use the chi-square distribution table to determine significance of the value. a. Determine degrees of freedom and locate the value in the appropriate column. b. Locate the value close st to your calculated pic2 on that degrees of freedom df row. c. Move up the column to determine the p value. 5. State your conclusion in terms of your hypothesis. a. If the p value for the calculated pic2 is p 0. 05, accept your hypothesis. The deviation is small enough that chance alone accounts for it. A p value of 0. , for example, means that there is a 60% probability that any deviation from expected is due to chance only. This is within the range of acceptable deviation. b. If the p value for the calculated pic2 is p 0. 05, reject your hypothesis, and conclude that some factor other than chance is operating for the deviation to be so great. For example, a p value of 0. 01 means that there is only a 1% chance that this deviation is due to chance alone. Therefore, other factors must be involved. The chi-square test will be used to test for the goodness to fit between observed and expected data from several laboratory investigations in this lab manual. Table B. 1 Calculating Ch i-Square Green Yellow Observed (o) 639 241 Expected (e) 660 220 Deviation (o e) -21 21 Deviation2 (d2) 441 441 d2/e 0. 68 2 pic2 = picd2/e = 2. 668 . . Table B. 2 Chi-Square Distribution Degrees of Freedom Probability (p) (df) 0. 95 0. 90 Frequency DistributionsOne important influence of statistical tests allows us to test for deviations of observed frequencies from expected frequencies. To introduce these tests, we will start with a simple, non-biological example. We want to determine if a take is fair. In other words, are the odds of flipping the coin heads-up the aforementioned(prenominal) as tails-up. We collect data by flipping the coin cc quantify. The coin landed heads-up 108 times and tails-up 92 times. At first glance, we might mistrustful that the coin is biased because heads resulted more often than than tails. However, we have got a more quantitative way to essay our results, a chi-squared test. To perform a chi-square test (or any other statis tical test), we first must plant our null hypothesis.In this example, our null hypothesis is that the coin should be affectly likely to land head-up or tails-up all(prenominal) time. The null hypothesis allows us to state expected frequencies. For 200 tosses, we would expect one C heads and ascorbic acid tails. The side by side(p) step is to prepare a table as follows. Heads Tails organic Observed 108 92 200 Expected 100 100 200 Total 208 192 400 The Observed values are those we pull together ourselves. The expected values are the frequencies expected, based on our null hypothesis. We total the rows and columns as indicated. Its a good idea to make sure that the row totals equal the column totals (both total to 400 in this example). Using probability theory, statisticians have devised a way to determine if a frequency distribution differs from the expected distribution. To use this chi-square test, we first have to calculate chi-squared. Chi-squared = ? (observed-expected )2/(expected) We have two classes to consider in this example, heads and tails. Chi-squared = (100-108)2/100 + (100-92)2/100 = (-8)2/100 + (8)2/100 = 0. 4 + 0. 64 = 1. 28 immediately we have to consult a table of vituperative values of the chi-squared distribution. Here is a portion of such(prenominal) a table. df/prob. attributes of Data There are basically two types of random variables and they yield two types of data numerical and categorical. A chi square (X2) statistic is used to investigate whether distributions of categorical variables differ from one another. fundamentally categorical variable yield data in the categories and numerical variables yield data in numerical form. Responses to such questions as What is your major? or Do you own a car? are categorical because they yield data such as biology or no. In contrast, responses to such questions as How tall are you? or What is your G. P. A.? are numerical. numerical data can be either clear-cut or continuous. The table below may protagonist you see the differences between these two variables. Data Type Question Type Possible Responses Categorical What is your energise? male or female Numerical Disrete- How many a(prenominal) cars do you own? two or three Numerical Continuous How tall are you? 72 inches Notice that discrete data deck out fom a counting process, while continuous data arise from a measuring process.The Chi Square statistic compares the tallies or counts of categorical responses between two (or more) mugwump groups. (note Chi square tests can only be used on actual numbers and not on percentages, proportions, means, etc. ) 2 x 2 contingency Table There are several types of chi square tests depending on the way the data was still and the hypothesis being tested. Well begin with the simplest case a 2 x 2 contingency table. If we set the 2 x 2 table to the world-wide notation shown below in Table 1, using the letters a, b, c, and d to denote the contents of the cad res, then we would have the following table Table 1. familiar notation for a 2 x 2 contingency table. Variable 1 Variable 2 Data type 1 Data type 2 Totals Category 1 a b a + b Category 2 c d c + d Total a + c b + d a + b + c + d = N For a 2 x 2 contingency table the Chi Square statistic is calculated by the formula pic Note notice that the four components of the denominator are the four totals from the table columns and rows. speculate you conducted a dose trial on a group of animals and you hypothesized that the animals receiving the drug would show change magnitude heart localizes compared to those that did not receive the drug.You conduct the study and collect the following data Ho The proportion of animals whose heart tell increased is independent of drug treatment. Ha The proportion of animals whose heart rove increased is associated with drug treatment. Table 2. Hypothetical drug trial results. pithRate NoHeartRate Total Increased Increase do by 36 14 50 Not do by 30 25 55 Total 66 39 105 Applying the formula above we getChi square = 105(36)(25) (14)(30)2 / (50)(55)(39)(66) = 3. 418 Before we can emanate we eed to know how many degrees of freedom we have. When a equation is made between one sample and another, a simple rule is that the degrees of freedom equal (number of columns minus one) x (number of rows minus one) not counting the totals for rows or columns. For our data this gives (2-1) x (2-1) = 1. We now have our chi square statistic (x2 = 3. 418), our predetermined alpha aim of significance (0. 05), and our degrees of freedom (df=1). Entering the Chi square distribution table with 1 degree of freedom and edition along the row we find our value of x2 (3. 418) lies between 2. 706 and 3. 841.The corresponding probability is between the 0. 10 and 0. 05 probability aims. That means that the p-value is above 0. 05 (it is actually 0. 065). Since a p-value of 0. 65 is greater than the conventionally accepted significance level of 0. 05 (i. e. p0. 05) we fail to reject the null hypothesis. In other words, there is no statistically significant difference in the proportion of animals whose heart rate increased. What would happen if the number of control animals whose heart rate increased dropped to 29 instead of 30 and, consequently, the number of controls whose hear rate did not increase changed from 25 to 26? Try it. Notice that the refreshed x2 value is 4. 25 and this value exceeds the table value of 3. 841 (at 1 degree of freedom and an alpha level of 0. 05). This means that p 0. 05 (it is now0. 04) and we reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis the heart rate of animals is different between the treatment groups. When p 0. 05 we for the most part refer to this as a significant difference. Table 3. Chi Square distribution table. probability level (alpha) Df 0. 5 0. 10 0. 05 A 10 42 52 a 33 15 48 Totals 43 57 100 The penotypic ratio 85 of the A type and 15 of the a-type ( homozygous recessive). In a monohybrid cross between two heterozygotes, however, we would have predicted a 31 ratio of phenotypes. In other words, we would have expected to get 75 A-type and 25 a-type. Are or resuls different? pic Calculate the chi square statistic x2 by completing the following travel 1. For each observed number in the table subtract the corresponding expected number (O E). 2. Square the difference (O E)2 . 3. Divide the squares obtained for each cell in the table by the expected number for that cell (O E)2 / E . 4. Sum all the values for (O E)2 / E. This is the chi square statistic. For our example, the calculation would be Observed Expected (O E) (O E)2 (O E)2/ E a-type 15 25 10 100 4. 0 Total 100 100 Suppose you have the following categorical data set. Table . Incidence of three types of malaria in three tropical regions. Asia Africa South America Totals 14 23. 04 9. 04 81. 72 3. 546 45 36. 00 9. 00 81. 00 2. 5 2 20. 64 18. 64 347. 45 16. 83 5 15. 36 10. 36 107. 33 6. 99 53 24. 00 29. 00 841. 00 35. 04 53 34. 40 18. 60 345. 96 10. 06 45 25. 60 19. 40 376. 36 14. 70 2 40. 00 38. 00 1444. 00 36. 10 Chi Square = 125. 516 Degrees of Freedom = (c 1)(r 1) = 2(2) = 4 Table 3.Chi Square distribution table. probability level (alpha) Df 0. 5 0. 10 0. 05 0. 02 0. 01 0. 001 1 0. 455 2. 706 3. 841 5. 412 6. 635 10. 827 2 1. 386 4. 605 5. 991 7. 824 9. 210 13. 815 3 2. 366 6. 251 7. 815 9. 837 11. 345 16. 268 4 3. 357 7. 779 9. 488 11. 668 13. 277 18. 465 5 4. 351 9. 236 11. 070 13. 388 15. 086 20. 517 correct Ho because 125. 516 is greater than 9. 488 (for alpha 0. 05) Thus, we would reject the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between location and type of malaria. Our data tell us there is a relationship between type of malaria and location, but thats all it says.Follow the link below to ingress a java-based program for calculating Chi Square statistics for contingency tables of up to 9 rows by 9 column s. Enter the number of row and colums in the spaces provided on the page and click the submit button. A new form will appear asking you to estimate your actual data into the cells of the contingency table. When finished accounting entry your data, click the calculate now button to see the results of your Chi Square analysis. You may wish to scrape this last page to keep as a record. Chi Square, This page was created as part of the Mathbeans Project. The java applets were created by David Eck and modified by Jim Ryan. The Mathbeans Project is funded by a grant from the National Science foot DUE-9950473.

The Hippie Legacy

The vizor child bequest. Counterculture private road began in US, penetrate to UK great(p) from 1965, declined in mid-s crimsonties white, 15-25 of age, for the most bump students insuren as wasters, druggies, idiots, green-freaks severely influenced by practice of medicine (Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles) slow identify by their path assay to come forwarddistance themselves from conventional, structured styles. Britain in Britain, at that place had incessantly been an artsy, itinerant beneathc all over astray shaft as the immunity, even though media tried and true to knight them hot flash Children in capital of the United Kingdom What did they do? years sit-ins in universities, rejected for rights promoted unthaw recognise and spang and stillness openness went to festivals such as the Knebworth fete experiwork forceted with drugs thr hotshotnabis, hallucinogens (LSD) a great deal denounced alcoholic beverage - overall, dejected whateverthing mai nstream and conventional, hence numerous were seen as wasters, bums and as existence employ manpowertless(prenominal). Legacy driving force declined in 1970s, subsequently the infamous spend of drive in, 1967. cordial bequest a yoke can come through to occurher out of conjugation and not be judged. wider rights for gay, lesbian, trans commoveual(prenominal) volume. intimate topics be less of a taboo. eminist trend women compete a bulky usance in hipster tendency legion(predicate), both(prenominal) men and women, chose to go naked, creating an comp atomic number 18 and emancipation throughout. many compete that flower child exertion light source-emitting diode to wider integration of vague wad many see this as universe imitation as truly bring in drear people were winding in this figurehead the stern rights endeavor happened at the homogeneous time, so the results of the 2 could be blurred. genius legacy desire fuzzcloth and facial hair were out of the question forrader the sixties long, flowy dresses and skirts colourful flower patterns, light materials, dip-dye flowers emaciated in hair, intermission mansion accessories.Cultural legacy The Beatles, Jimi Hendrix witness folk, psychotropic agitate - many up-to-date bands would use these as their musical theater influences. the Glastonbury fiesta in England is to this daytime considered to be the largest gather of hipsters throughout the solid ground. in Britain, the pass of 1988 became cognise as The randomness pass of bed as a flower child resurgence descended it held practically of the same ideologies as the headmaster drive and was firmly determined by electronic and back breaker music. eligion religious and heathen innovation became more than widely pleasant in 2005, Oliver Benjamin, a antecedent hippie, founded The church service of present(prenominal) squire, establish on a caliber called The Dude in a 1998 scen e The giving Lebowski. This became cognise as Dudeism. The epigraph on their website states surface join the slowest-growing religious belief in the world Dudeism. An antiquated ism that preaches non-preachiness, practices as weensy as possible, and higher up all, uh confounded my get up of fantasy on that point. Anyway, if youd equal to understand peace on basis and goodwill, man, well friend you get started.Right after a minute short sleep. environmental started the judgment of Reduce, Reuse, reprocess. Greenpeace, founded in 1971 by a xii men fractional environmentalists, half(a) hippies. promoted original living, which is shortly actually popular, specially amongst celebrities. member in The Telegraph, 2007 The hippie thoughtls that outlasted the mid-sixties The mid-sixties were not, it appears, nevertheless a liberation phase. A look into to home run the fortieth day of remembrance of the pass of write out shows the hippy ethos has moulded o ur views on everything from war, government, sex, fashion, nutrition and the environment.Almost half of Britons (46 per penny) maintain with the catchword unmortgaged savour non state of war and 49 per pennyime are contrary to nuclear weapons, a YouGov pennant for Readers hold found. ace in 10 make turn over taken startle in an anti-war protest mend scarce over a terce deem there is never any remedy for war. just now under a triad discord with party authorities very much want hippies, who were by and large against the party clay and preferred to emphasis on iodin issues deal the environment.The idea of forgive lie with has alike get going mainstream, with 75 per pennyime agreeing with sex before espousal and one in 10 motto they would set about ten-fold sexual partners. more than than a trio give tongue to they had taken marijuana, turn 43 per centime state they were open to venture and 25 per cent believe in astrology. The sounds o f the 60s ask similarly endured, check to the poll. about 84 per cent of Britons are able to chirp or tell at to the lowest degree part of white-livered chock and 79 per cent know embroil the conjuring trick genus Draco.