Tips for Boosting Search-Engine Rankings :: Sell Websites Buy Websites

Tips for Boosting Search-Engine Rankings Reprinted with permission of Votan nett.comEvery online retailer would love to improve their search-engine rankings. Many disreputable companies ar taking advantage of this fact by collecting huge sums while guaranteeing websites consistently high rankings. Unfortunately, the guarantees are as illusive as the companies leading them.Kyle Brenner learned an expensive lesson when launching his first website. He paid $13,000 in total to two companies that promised to put his website at the vizor of search-engine listings for searches on popular phrases for his website. Each company guaranteed they could keep his website at the top of the listings. In each case, the websites ranking rose to the top and then, all of a sudden, it was gone. Unfortunately, when you fall off the search engines, youre out of business.Mr. Brenner was just another victim of disreputable search-engine optimization companies which offer guaranteed rankings on search engin es. The companies he hired specialized in search-engine optimization (SEO), the process of helping place a site high in search-engine rankings when Web surfers look for information related to the site. The firms claimed they could fake out the search engines. All they really did was rip-off Mr. Brenner. The bottom line is this, only search engines have check over over the way sites are ranked in search results. George Miran hired an SEO company that promised to improve her sites rankings and keep them high. The firm achieved this by editing the sites copy to embarrass keywords, writing more search-engine-friendly Web coding, and arranging for related sites to link to hers. This approach isnt voodoo, its just common sense. SEO firms cant guarantee top search-engine rankings because search engines are constantly changing the way they rank Web sites. No SEO firm has inside access to those changes. .Before hiring an SEO company, ask for references from past clients to learn about the ir experiences. well-thought-of firms explain what they do in plain English and they are happy to provide a list of previous clients. Many website owners believe that they need to exact their Web site to every search engine on the planet. Nothing could be further from the truth. Your website only send to be included in the top few search engines that are used in 99% of all searches. Some search engines will list you more quickly if you submit your website to them. Google, on the other hand, finds sites on their own from links on sites already in their databases.

Edwin S. Porter :: essays research papers

Edwin S. doorkeeper was both a film pioneer and director. He was a film pioneer because he made flock come back to the theaters and start watching movies. His movies also were good because they told a story by editing the move. Being a director he made some of the greatest films in 1902 and 1903. In 1902 he directed The Life of an American Fireman and in 1903 The Great Train Robbery. With these two skills he was able to direct great films and use special camera shots not know of at that present time.Porter was born on April 21st 1870 in Connellsville, Pennsylvania. There was not really both information on his parents but they did his parents first named him Edward. Since he was pudgy people use to call him Betty. There was really no information on why they called him Betty but I am sure it meant something. In 1893 he get together United States Navy and changed his name. He changed his name to Edwin Stanton instead of Edward Stanton. He changed it after Abraham Lincolns Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton before he went into the Navy. They did not go into any detail on why he did it but my guess is he did not like his name and changed it. In the resources that I found I could not find much information about the rest of his family. I could not even find any information on what he did in his proterozoic years. The earliest I could find was starting in 1893.In 1895 he started to work for the Vitascope Marketing Company. He would use his talent of electrical engineering with the company. With Vitascope he was in the project of the first projected movie that was shown in New York. That date was April 23rd 1896. He used his skills in engineering at Edisons Manufacturing Companys Laboratory. He let Edison for a while and went to Eden Musee Theatre in New York where he an operator. He was in charge of acquiring the films and projecting them onto the screen. His duties also were kind of illegal because he took a lot of films and edited them together to make fifteen- minute films. He would also take some of Melies films and tack together them into the show, since he like some of Melies work. The films would range from historical Wars and news films.

The Conflicts of the Black Race: Delayed Economic and Educational Progress :: essays research papers

The Conflicts of the Black Race Delayed Economic and Educational ProgressIn the 1960s, blacks, led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., fought for their civilrights and equal opportunities. Although they had single been turn up of slavery forless than a century, they felt the time was way past due for them to receive thesame treatment as other American citizens. Our the great unwashed struggled to receivedecent education programs for their youth for the right to earn a decent living,and to receive respect from other racial groups. Fortunately for our generation,their fight end in victory. However, 30 years later, despite the progressmade then, our community does not seem to have kept up with our ancestors rateof self-improvement. Not only are blacks still disrespected by other races, conundrums also plague us such as poverty, drugs, and miseducation. To makematters even worse, we also have a atrocious lack of unity. Some of us feel asthough it is not our responsibility to help other bl acks when they are in need.Another major problem is the existence of racial discrimination. This negative attitude leadsto many physical and psychological problems within the black community.Therefore, lack of unity within the black community and the effects of racismare two major factors when contribute to the slow progress of black people.Before the Civil Rights movement racism was so blatant that not intentional itexisted would have been difficult. Presently, it is so subtle that some arguewe cannot blame racism for our problems. Unfortunately, they are wrong. Theeffects of racism can be seen in the segregation of our neighborhoods and in ourhigh unemployment rates. White people want to keep their contact with us to aminimum. In 1991, USA Today reported that the 1990 census "concluded that the volume of the nations 30 million black people are as segregated now as theywere . . . in the 60s " (Smith 104). This proves that although some blacksincomes have increased, they d o not ever live in neighborhoods they can affordbecause the area is usually predominately white. The U.S. Department of Housingand Urban Development found that anti-black discrimination was widespread in the housing industry in 1992 (Smith 105). This practice can be found in theworkplace. Ed Smith, Ph.D. found that "blacks with college degrees had a 13percent unemployment rate in 1987 compared to vanadium percent for whites" (Smith112). Many studies exist that prove that college-educated blacks are not muchbetter off than high-school graduates. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rightsadmitted that "lack of education is not the actor for high minority

Anne Hutchinson a Woman with a Voice Essay --

In the rule book Anne Hutchinson Puritan Prophet Timothy D. Hall not that writes a archives of Anne but the whole state of Christianity in the late 16th and early 17th century. The story is ab go forth woman who was not afraid to speak out and voice her views. The author gives an in-depth story of all the events that were happening and how they influenced Anne to become such an important figure in history of protestant Christianity. Anne Hutchinson was influenced by a telephone number of people in her life. The first influence must have been her father. Her father Rev. Marbury spoke out against many ministers in the Church of England because of their lack of qualification or corruption. He was sentenced for a year in prison. Anne read many of her fathers books which shaped her into a woman that wasnt afraid to speak out. Anne was natural July 17th 1591 in Alford England. She married William Hutchinson and they had 15 children. In 1634 she and her family moved to Boston. One of the driving factors of her move to Boston was the fact that her most admired preacher stool Cotton had moved to Boston. She felt it was Gods will to move to Boston as well.Upon arrival to Boston she worked as a midwife and healer. She was a member of the church where John Cotton preached. She started her own bible study group with women, which later becomes one of the reasons she would be tried in court for. Anne indeed gets accused of heresies in the Puritan church. She is accused Antinomianism and Familism. She then is found guilty and gets banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the short seven chapters, the author paints a discover of a major dilemma that was between different religious individuals. Within the dilemma the story unfolds the influence of Anne in the... ... the Puritans and their development as a denomination. I would say that this book is written for specific audience. This book would suite someone who is interested in studying early 17th century Chris tian history. This book would also suite someone who wants to know the in-depth version of the biography of Anne Hutchinson. I think those specific audience would enjoy this book and could probably use it as a great resource. For someone who just wants an overall biography of Anne Hutchinson, this book would be overwhelming do to the level of detail that is involved. This biography not only tells Annes story, but really goes into the where she got her ideas and why she became who she was. The author explains the Puritan beliefs and the 17th century church in Boston well and puts it in understanding terms. This makes it a well-written book that you can enjoy reading.

Paper Airfoil Aerodynamics -- physics aerodynamics

Missing figuresTwo basic principles of fluid dynamics underlie all objects in flight The forces of Lift, opposing the downward acceleration of gravity, and the forces of embrace due to air-resistance. Both forces, properly harnessed and controlled lead to such(prenominal) ingenious devices as the parachute and the helicopter. Aerodynamics, the field of fluid dynamics involving the flow of gasses, even has applications in fields as separate as the automotive industry, fire-safety, and golfing.The aerodynamics of constitution airfoils, and additionally, the study of airfoils of small size and low mass are allowing the emergence of a new generation of aircraft low-speed, affordable aircraft for a variety of uses military reconnaissance, civilian law enforcement, and interplanetary exploration.This web-project will explore and discuss some of the fundamentals and phenomena regarding such low-speed airfoils. Constructing composition airfoils is one easy and enjoyable way to study such aerodynamics.Daniel Bernoulli, a member of the Swiss family of mathematicians, studied the dynamics of fluid flow. He is recognise today with a principle of fluid flow named after him Bernoulli?s Principle. Bernouli?s principle shows that the average velocity of an ideal fluid is directly proportional to the pressure (A force over an area) it exerts upon a surface along that flow. Figure 1.1 shows an example of a device used to measure the velocity of moving fluids utilizing this principle. A pitot-tube utilizes the differences in pressures between the stagnant air at the tip and the moving air across the opening to determine the velocity. A greater difference in pressures means a greater fluid speed. According to popular myth, Archi... ...t. Although, typically, increasing the thickness of a wing generally increases its curvature, leading to greater lift. For the case of paper airfoils, which are mostly flat, increasing the curvature of the wing leads to a loss i n stability and a very large increase in drag. 5. Airfoils with shorter accord lengths typically suffer from less viscous drag than those of longer chord lengths. These wings are called high-aspect ratio wings, The aspect ratio is the ratio of the wings wing-span to its surface area. For paper airfoils, due to lack of rigidity at long lengths and short chord lengths it is possible for a wing to fold in on itself at speeds of sustainable flight. This typically puts an upper limit to a wings span of only a few tens of centimeters when it is constructed of paper, and therefore most paper airfoil wings are low-aspect ratio.

The Double Helix Essay -- Double Helix Essays

The Double Helix The discovery of the structure by Crick and Watson, with all its biological implications, has been 1 of the major scientific events of this century. (Bragg, The Double Helix, p1) In the story of The Double Helix, James Watson tells of the road that led to the discovery of lifes basic building block-DNA. This autobiography gives insight into light and the workings within a professional research laboratory that few members of society will ever be able to experience. It also gives the reader an image of the reality of life for one scientist and how he struggled with the problem of DNA. However, the authors style is marked by his lack of objectivity and inclusion of many biased opinions and personal prejudices. champion example of this ongoing subjective style can buoy be seen in Watsons writing on women, particularly in his dealings with Rosalind Franklin. The fact that Watson believes that all women are good for is pleasure and keeping house can be seen in the word choice and style of several passages throughout The Double Helix. These passages subjects include Rosalind Franklins appearance, appeal, and acceptation of the double helix model and concept. In the first several chapters of The Double Helix, James Watson gives detailed descriptions of the places and people who were of some importance in this charade of science. Watson wrote of his personal history and of how he arrived at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. In this laboratory was a yet-unknown thirty-five year old man named Frances Crick . When Watson joined the group at Cavendish it was to help continue studies on the structure of proteins. Some of the people in the lab that Watson mentioned were Sir Lawr... ...be shed. In comparing several passages written about Rosalind Franklin, it can be seen that Watson carried a certain style and pre-determined opinion of women and their place in society. In the first passage written about Rosys appearance, Watson criticizes her choice of dress and indeed tries to blame her family for the way she turned out. The second passage dealt with Rosy as a presenter and her appeal to the audience, particularly Watson. In the final passage, Watson is shocked to settle that Rosy can be rational and was not always being outrageous. By examining the amount of objective and subjective material in three of Watsons passages, it is operable that his style can be fingerprinted by his lack of objectivity and by his splashing of personal opinions. Works Cited Watson, James. The Double Helix. WW Norton & Company, New York London. 1980.

Psy/265 Sexuality at Different Life Stages Essay

There are changes in every stage of career including bring upual changes that follow us as we grow older. With the following scenarios that prattle slightly the different points of our awareness and stages of informal relationships, I will apprise from a counselors perspective ways to help each person in the ambits presented. The first case is Anna, an adolescent girl, is very much in love with her dude who is three years older than she. He is putting a lot of pressure on her to have sex. At the same time, she is anxious ab let out her parents locating towards her boyfriend.Her mother constantly warns her about dating an older boy and assumes that he intends to take advantage of her. The first thing I would go about is setting a relaxed and comfortable exchange to everyow Anna to express her own opinions, in doing so I would simply ask her what she feels about having sex with her boyfriend, non how her parents feel, not how her boyfriend feels, but how does she feel about it. I would then ask her is she was prepared to have sex, has she discussed with her boyfriend what precautions they would take, and what they would be prepared to do if manything happened and she became pregnant.Some of the questions would be directed towards her once I could visu each(prenominal)y observe her, I would ask her if she was feeling peer pressure to have sex, or if her boyfriend was pressuring her to have sex. I would also explain that well-nightimes it is okay to say no to sex and just because her friends say they have or are encouraging her to have sex does not necessarily mean it is the right decision for her. I would also enter into a discussion of what sex means to her, and bring about the questions to attend to if she feels if she does not have sex with him she would perchance loose him.I would recommend to her that she see a gynecologist or her family doctor to further explore any the birth control options and make sure she understands that even though it i s a shared responsibility with her and her boyfriend, she should make sure she is practicing safe sex. For me I would also mark that her mother is concerned, because Anna is her daughter. I would ask her if she had any questions for me, and then assure her that what ever we discuss is between us and she put up feel free to come to talk with me at anytime.I would also tell her to take all the time she needed to come to her decision, and make it because it is what is right for her. I am a realist, and all we can do is provide the kids with good information and hope that we have given them enough of it for them to make a decision that is right and safe for them. tomcat and Susan are an elderly couple. tomcat has been retired for several years, and Susan is to a greater extent recently retired. She has shown a renewed come to in internal activity.Tom has not reciprocated Susans interest as he is anxious about his sexual ability at this age. I feel it would be best to first address some issues with Tom and see if he felt there was a possible physical reason that perhaps he had not brought up prior to this. Several factors may play a role in sexual inactivity including declining activity, physical problems, boredom, and attitudes about sex among older people. If he was having physical issues I would suggest to him that perhaps he should see his physician about some of the things that may help in this area.Many men have problems with erections due to stress and other factors, and when you can get to the cause of it, there is often help for it. I would discuss with them about Susans recent retirement and see if that change has triggered her to have some extra energy and less stress from not having a regular scheduled job. I would suggest that they try date night, or think about activities or things that used to make them feel more romantic, and suggest that they try to stop thinking about it and just let it naturally occur.Go out and do things that make you bot h happy, couple things, individual things, get to know each other again because in a sense that is what they are doing, getting to know each other again. I would encourage them to communicate and talk about things, not turn the television on or the phone on when they go to bed, and discuss their needs openly with each other and figure out what will meet both of their needs. circuit board has been paralyzed from the waist deplete since he was a child. He is involved in a romantic relationship and wishes to be intimate with his accessory but is unsure how to express his interest.Bill becomes very nervous and uncomfortable when talking about this subject Sex and the ability to have sex with a partner and have a ache term intimate relationship is desired as much by people with a disability as it is with most people. The amount of physical sexual function and ability to feel pleasure or pain sensation is often the first thing they think of, raising fear and anxiety. Yet it is someth ing we all desire because sex enriches our lives and brings us to understanding and closer relationships with our partners.People with a physical disability often have a poor self system image, thinking they are damaged goods, broken, somehow less than. These feelings are normal you should talk about them with your partner, but dont dwell on them. anicteric love making is about pleasing your partner. Often people in Bills situation find excitement and release simply from the parsimony of pleasuring their partner. Healthy sexuality involves warmth, tenderness, and love, not just genital contact, so I would encourage Bill to step outside of his comfort zone and talk to his partner about how he feels.I recommend that Bill seek his physicians medical opinion and assistance to see if one of the clinical treatments for cavernous dysfunction, such as Viagra could improve the quality of erections and sexual activity with him. I would also remind him that orgasm after paralysis is possibl e for some men but it is often not the same as it is usually defined. It can become less physical, less focused on the genitals and more about his state of mind. It is important Bill comes to understand that the loss of sensation does not rule out loss of sexuality.In conclusion, we all experience sexual awareness and activity during all ages of our lives. So we all need to take a moment to just breathe and know we are not alone. communication to our partners, talk with our physicians/counselors and learn what will work for you in your own situation. Take control of your life and learn to understand your own body. References Rathus, S. A. , Nevid, J. S. , and Fichner-Rathus, L. (2011). Human sexuality in a world of diversity. (8th ed. ) Boston, MA Allyn and Bacon.

Dreams in the Great Gatsby

The Broken Ameri bunghole Dream of the 1920s An accurate name for the 1920s is the roaring twenties. This was a decennary full of social transformation and industrialization. Through this shift, a degradation in social moral occurred. A victim of this shift is the character J. Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby. Gatsby is corrupted by values and attitudes that he holds in common with a society that destroys him(44). Through this mutual and obscured social moral, Gatsby seems to obtain a negative view of his American Dream.Where the American Dream once consisted of the belief that pile of talent in this land of opportunity and plenty could reasonably get to material success if they adhered to a well-defined set of behaviors(Trask). These behaviors were actions such as working hard, staying honest, and better educating ones self much like the list that Gatsby made as a young boy. But with the boom of industrialization, came a trend of bootlegging and get rich quick sch emes and unfortunately Gatsby became a victim of the era. As a matter of fact, Gatsby is non the only one who has suffered from this time of moral deterioration.Daisy Buchanan, Gatsbys object of obsession, also is a victim of a society that allows her to not bow responsibility for her actions. Daisy hides behind her public facade and her innocent carefree charm. Her husband tom Buchanan has also manipulated the greedy, selfish social society that exists on East egg. tom turkey has no dreams or aspirations and seeks excitement source in sport, then in infidelity, seeking identity in a book of racist political ism(Wershoven). In a time of moral peril, each character is corrupted by a societal liking that taints their grasp of the American Dream.During Gatsbys adolescent years, he has a clear and healthy mindset ab prohibited what he wanted to accomplish in his life. Gatsby was self-motivated to make something of his life. But once he meets Daisy, Daisy be get along withs the emb odiment of his dreams and the object of his obsession. As a young boy, growing up in North Dakota, Gatsby was motivated to be happy. Gatsbys father said esteem was bound to get ahead. Even as a young adult, Gatsby refused to think of himself as an average individual. Gatsbys parents were shiftless and unsuccessful and Gatsby neer actually accepted them as his parents at all. Instead Gatsby had a schedule of each day that would help him to attain his wealth. As Trask says, He early decided that he could contemplate future glory. Early on Gatsby embodies the ideals of society before the 1920s he is determined and eager to work hard to independently reach success. This is until he meets Daisy, the idea of Daisy is what sways Gatsbys dreams off the right path. Gatsby met Daisy as a young man and hopelessly fell in love with her. However in the end, Daisy stony-broke it off with Gatsby since he was not financially suitable for maintaining her lifestyle.It seems as though Gatsb y never recovered from getting his heart broken by Daisy. As scratch says, Gatsby had a extraordinary gift of hope- a romantic readiness such I have never found in any(prenominal) former(a) person and which is not likely I shall find ever again(2). Nick also says Gatsby turned out alright at the end it is what preyed on Gatsby, what poisonous dust floated in the wake of his dreams that temporarily closed out my interest in the abortive sorrows and short-wind elations of men(2). Indeed, it was the idea of winning Daisys love that operate Gatsby to his success.It corrupted his earlier ideas of working hard and saving his money now he had to make money fast and resorted to bootlegging. Gatsby becomes frantic at the idea of sexual climax wealthy and instead of slowly climbing up the success latter, he desperately and quickly makes money in any way he can so he can win Daisy back as quickly as possible. Gatsby became consumed with the idea of winning Daisys affection and rekindling their past romance. This is apparent when Gatsby describes their firstborn kiss His heart beat faster and faster as Daisys white face came up to his own.He knew that when he kissed this little girl, and forever wed his unnameable visions of her perishable breathe, his mind would never romp again like the mind of god. So he waitedThen he kissed herand the incarnation was complete(112). Gatsby is brought down by Daisy and the refusal to see the disposition of his own dreams(Wershoven). Nick sums up Gatsbys debacle perfectly when he says that perhaps Gatsbys dream must have seemed so close that he could hardly fail to grasp it. He did not know that it was already behind him, somewhere back in the vast obscurity. What cut says is true(p), Gatsby was so blinded by love that he could not see Daisys flaws and Gatsby ended up paying the ultimate price . As Trask says, Daisy could never become a legitimate actualization of Gatsbys illegitimate dream(Trask). Among those who have distort ed dreams, Daisy Buchanan might perhaps be the worst. Daisy is a selfish, rich girl who has never been held responsible for her actions, for she embodies the pure freedom of endless choice without consequences(Wershoven). Daisy has never had to concern herself with worrying about money or materialistic things.Daisy has always gotten things reach to her and would not want it any other way. Daisy takes advantage of the fact that she lives in a society that has put her on a pedistal, and allows her to smash up things without any consquences. Her attractive nature and charm has helped her support this type of lifestyle. Daisy cannot even fathom the idea of having to work for something and therefore she has a sense of entitlement to everything that is given to her. At first Daisy seems harmless and bored as she mindlessly wonders out loud what she will do with the rest of her days.But as the novel goes on, it becomes quite clear that Daisy is not what she seems. Daisy has become a maste r of manipulation in recount to maintain her lavish lifestyle. She knows exactly how to agree with what society expects of her and knows how to dress and maintain her appearance. But disdain her warm and inviting appearance, Daisy is quite cold and superficial. Daisys ideals of wealth and money lead her to live a superficial and meaningless life that wreaks havoc in the lives of the other characters. It is this love of money that led here to marry her husband Tom Buchanan.Instead of waiting for Gatsby to return to the war, Daisy just decides to marry Tom because of his wealth and foresee of a lavish life. Tom even gives her a three-hundred thousand-dollar pearl necklace. Even this amount of money is not enough to ensure Daisys fidelity. As short as Gatsby comes back into town, she begins to have an purpose. Even after years of leading Gatsby on, she til now breaks his heart when she says that she loves them both. This is when it comes apparent that Daisy will never leave Tom. For Daisy, even true love is not enough to make her change her lifestyle. Her love of money has made her cold and reckless when it comes to love. another(prenominal) example of Daisys reckless nature is when Toms mistress, Myrtle Wilson, is killed. Daisy is perfectly content with letting Gatsby take the fall. Not one time does she even contemplate the idea of coming off to take responsibility. Instead she hides behind her wealth and her appearance. As Wershoven puts it, society helps to cover up the deed. Daisy is an insatiable girl that has no need for validation by others.Daisy wants things and slew but, there is no space inside her that can be filled, no unfinished part of her can be completed by another(Wershoven). Therefore, Daisy views state as at her disposal. This is ultimately the attitude that is responsible for Gatsbys death. Daisy is so caught up in the materialistic needs of that time that she cannot value anything e else. She views everything she has as an accessor y even her own daughter. Were as most parents feel defined by their childrens lives, the reader almost forgets that Daisy even has a daughter at all.She only interacts with her child when it is convenient for her and when it looks good in front of company. Daisys husband, Tom Buchanan is an ex- football star from the akin college that Nick attended. Nick describes Tom as one of those men that reach such an acute limited excellence at twenty-one that everything afterwards savors anti-climax(10). Tom falls victim to greed and cannot pander his need for more. As Wereshoven says Daisy and Tom are always looking for something, something new and better, for they are bored with the things they already bought.Daisy wonders what theyll do each day, and the next day, identifying the dilemma of people who can have whatever they want, as soon as they want it (Wershoven). Tom is in a perpetuating cycle of greed in which he hitherto cannot find satisfaction. He seeks thrills through sports, li terature and even infidelity and all fall short of the glory he had back in college. He shares the same kind of entitlement and ignorance as Daisy. Toms idea of good literature are books like the The Rise of the Colored Empire and even expresses to Nick his distress over the absorption of the white race.But even Toms attempts at sounding intelligent fall short and he ends up sounding ignorant and pretentious. Another telling thing about Tom is the way he treats the women in his life. While he appears to be happily married to Daisy, he still is having an affair with Myrtle Wilson. For months, Tom brings Myrtle to his apartment in New York and for months, Tom knowingly leads her on. Tom showers her with gifts and even buys her a dog and an expensive leash. However, Tom has no aspiration of ever leaving Daisy for Myrtle someone of lower social status than him.But yet Myrtle is under the delusional impression that Tom will leave his wife for her and she will at last be part of the soc ial network she dreams of. Myrtle is so in love with this idea that in turn, she despises the life that she lives without Tom including her husband, George Wilson. Tom is also the ultimate hypocrite. While he the first one to criticize Daisy and Gatsbys affair, he himself is having an affair. When Tom finds out about Daisys affair, he confronts Gatsby and says I suppose the latest thing is to sit back and let Mr.Nobody from Nowhere make love to your wife. Well, if thats the idea then you can count me out (137). He even claims that their affair is a step toward inter-racial marriage. Tom condemns his wife for her infidelity but describes his own as once in a while going on a spree devising a fool out of himself, but he has always come back, and in his heart he loves her all the time. Not only is Tom cheating with George Wilsons wife, but he also acts as a strong-arm toward George. George Wilson is an honest, good-hearted man and Tom just toys with him.Tom promises George that he w ill sell his car to him but he really never has any intention of doing so. George Wilson is depending on that money so he can start a new life out west and all Tom is doing is giving him desolate promises. When George tries to bring up the subject to Tom, Tom gets offended and says Very well then, I wont sell you the car at all Im under no obligations to you at all And as for your bothering me about it at lunch time I wont stand for that at all (122).Tom tries to find satisfaction by making George look like a fool and is amused by how easily he is able to do so. Just like Daisy, Tom has no regret for the pain he inflicts in others. Overall the characters in The Great Gatsby, all embodied ideals that were emphasized in that time. Women were viewed as accessories and not yet contributing members of society. Women were still in charge of maintaining the home, especially in wealthy households, and concerned themselves with the small things. Daisy takes full advantage of this attitud e and successfully gets away with murder.It is Daisy who corrupts J. Gatsbys ideal of his American dream and instead of working hard, and pulling himself up y his own bootstraps, he resorts to crime in order to become rich quickly so that he can win Daisy back. Instead of working hard for his own self-success, he chases this idea of Daisy. And finally Tom, was a victim of his own insatiable impulse that he could not fulfill. In every aspect of his life, Tom wanted more. Tom held an ideal that was very common throughout the 1920s that his money and broad(prenominal) social class would be able to buy him anything in life.The idea of the American dream is wanting more for ones own life and becoming successful by hard honest work. All these characters shared the same sense of wanting more. But the had immoral ways of fulfilling their needs. Gatsby resorts to criminal activity in order to become wealthy. And Tom and Daisy resort to affairs in trying to satisfy their need for love. Unfo rtunately Gatsby is the one that pays the price in the end. Work Cited Trask, David F. A argumentation on Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby. University Review. 3. 3 (Mar. 1967) 197-202. Rpt. in Novels for Students. Ed. Diane Telgen. Vol. 2. Detroit Gale, 1998. 197-202. Literature Resource Center. Gale. 12 Oct. 2009 http//go. galegroup. com/ps/start. do? p=LitRC=a04fu Wershoven, Carol. Insatiable Girls. Child Brides and Intruders. wheel Green Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1993. 92-99. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Linda Pavlovski. Vol. 157. Detroit Gale, 2005. 92-99. Literature Resource Center. Gale. 12 Oct. 2009 .

Power of Love Essay

We all withdraw have a go at it to be able to be attached to early(a)s. The more connected you atomic number 18 to a person the more that you are healthier and love is very essential for life, mind, heart, and it is oxygen to the brain. It is important to pull ahead love in life. We grow to love others because if comes from within and from our hearts. We contend to love to survive to feel the need to belong to soulfulness. Frequently people grow accustomed to each other when they have love in their lives. Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to non be with a nonher person when they are in love and feel a tolerate between each other. It is therefore of great importance for aces attention and process to be connected to each other through love. I believe love is something that sweeps us off our feet that takes our breath away with that some 1 special and that special feeling that is divided up between dickens people. It is something that we all need. tell apart to me is a flower, a word, a song a note something special between two people emotionally. Love is wish the best medicine for anything. but many of our ideas approximately it are wrong. The less love you have, the more depressed you are resemblingly to feel. (By Ellen McGrath, published on December 01, 2002 last reviewed on March 30, 2009) I have learned that when people are depressed it is because they dont love themselves and therefore they johnt love any angiotensin-converting enzyme else. It is dark to think that so many of us in directlys society are really very lamentably depressed and that we feel we have to have someone in our life and that we miss interpret lonely it to love.I have done this before where I have been depressed and have had someone in my life and thought it was love and it was not. I guess when I didnt love myself, I was not sure how to signal out the two or how to differentiate. Being depressed clear attract you to someone, and it all in all can be the wrong person for us. What attracts us to another person is there character, personality, Their smile their vulnerability and how they treat us and draw us close to them. We are less likely to befriend someone from another culture because it is more interesting due to other cultures backgrounds, accents. We choose others from other cultures than our own culture because it isnt new anymore and it is of the same likes as our own. The attribution of attraction is they include. In our textbooks we read about Proximity and that is how our friends lived close to us as we grew up and how the friendships genuine over the length of time. Friendship developed (Nahemow & Lawton, 1975). We all greet that friendships grow after hold backting to realize someone, and this closeness becomes very easy to win over and turn into a relationship. Just like when we go to school we have classes together and we sit among each other and of course that will dev elop into making more friends if not relationships and then showtime making closer bonds with friends. indeed there is association where we tend to express our opinions about other people and share our insights with others. We also share similarities and we sometimes abetter _or_ abettor that with attractiveness and likeness which is something two people share that can result in bonding between two people that share the same qualities. (Neimeyer & Mitchell, 1988)Then we simply tend to like those who like us back or are similar to what we are like. It is a great sense of feeling when you know that you are interacting with someone that is a lot like yourself and that that person likes you back and that you both get a long that you dont have to confess to be someone else and that you both get along exceptionally well. We feel expert when we are around somebody. We tend to report a higher take of attraction toward that person (Forgas, 1992 Zajonc & McIntosh, 1992) Physical attract ion plays a role in who we care to be friends with. Even though that sometimes doesnt mean that we may be attracted to that person or that we choose that person to be with it is just an attraction that happens between two people who have very similar likes. We cant help who we are attracted to and who we end up with. It isnt something we plan it is something that just happens. Opposites attract and that sometimes can bring two people physically closer in a relationship than a friendship. Sometimes attractive people attract other attractive people and sometimes attraction has nix to do with looks what so ever. It is just a mutual or physical bonding that brings two people together. Sometimes a tall person may be attracted to a person who is a short person. A skinny person can be with aheavy person. Attraction isnt about money, wealth, fame, or young, old or anything like that. It is a feeling that two people share no matter the circumstances and it is the way things are.The human need to build bonds in a relationship is because as human nature we just want to belong to someone. We have basic needs just as an infant needs their mother to carry them, hold them and nurture them so do we. As we get older we need someone to hold us and care for us and tell us that things are going to be okay. It provides stability, protection, It totally assist in growth between two people. Just like anything in life we need the use of water, shelter and warmth and we need to be able to have some form of survival in our lives. We need that comfort and that love and that closeness that we feel only one person can give to us. That is what we need to be able to have that human bond in life. Yes we do have an innate to belong of course most definitely because we all want love and we all want to be love and we all want to love back. We all fear being merely as we grow older and we all fear that everyone will leave us one day and it is a very scary feeling. Many people tend to have p anic attacks just knowing that they will be alone and that is very depressing. From the very beginning of life In my opinion and in my own life ,I would have to say that loneliness is a very sad feeling and it is a feeling of emotion of being disconnected from society from family, from life in general. It is like when you feel the loss of a loved one that has been in your life for many years and they are no longer around you sense loneliness all around you feel like you have lost your best friend and you feel so isolated and you can be around friends and family all day long and you can feel good on the outside and yet still be dying on the inside with anxiety and panic worrying that you are alone that nobody cares. It is transparent that humans have an innate need to feel connected. We are social beings with many needs and a want and need to belong. Robert Sternbergs theory he explained the differences of love and that they consisted of three different kind of loves he described in timacy as a need for emotional connection which is shared between two people who have desire for each other and share intimate feelings. Then he shared passion as he explained passion, he expressed it as a sexual attraction that was a motivational drive that was shared between two peoplewho had such a desire for one another and passion he described as two people who had very deep attractiveness for each other. To me consummated love is between a husband and a wife in a committed union. and that is as Robert Sternberg said it is a thoughtful part of love it involves first deciding one is in love, which, over time, develops into a lasting commitment to a relationship or person. (Nevid & Rathus, 2005)Romantic love to me is a love that is where you hold hands and you get butterflies. Where intimacy is involved even it is it is not a committed relationship but it is shared between to physically drawn individuals. Romantic lovers look at each other through rose colored glasses not seeing each others flaws.(Nevid & Rathus, 2005) Empty love to me is a love where two people are married and yet arent in love with one another anymore but they hang on together because of security and emotional ties and years have been invested. They stay together for fear of being alone and they deal with each other because its out of respect. (Nevid & Rathus, 2005) in todays society so many people can relate to this sort of love because so many people remain together for their children not realizing that staying together is making the children miserable and that eventually they will grow up and leave the nest making their own lives elsewhere. I think this is such a sad love. Infatuation is a relationship based on passion, with no intimacy or commitment. Infatuation is characterized by passionate attraction on sight, and an practice session of such would be a one night stand. (Nevid & Rathus, 2005) Why do so many people want to stay together and ruin their lives in an empty love relati onship? They dont realize that by being honest with themselves they could start a new with someone else and be totally happy. Today so many men have affairs in an empty love relationship even if they are secure, have fear and stay together because of finances and pacts. Why cant we all just be happy and be with the one person that makes us the happiest. I know this feeling all too well and I chose to walk away from an empty love. Free to be happy, Free to independent, free to be free and not with someone out of obligation. It is sad to be with someone who you dont desire or love anymore. It is not right to make someone stay with you just because you have been together for so long. I longed to be desired and loved and wanted and needed with someone who truly loved me and was willing to make a commitment and give themselves to me entirely. I chose to be with someone who I am in love with and who has my heart. Not someone I feel an obligation or duty to at all. That is like saying, If I wanted a maid, I would have married a maid. But I married a partner, A best friend, my soul mate my companion and my everything. That to me is a genuine love and so many people dont know what they are looking for in life and its the saddest thing if you ask me.ReferencesReferred By Ellen McGrath, published on December 01, 2002 last reviewed on March 30, 2009 http//beta.in-mind.orghttp//panicdisorder.abouthttp//voices.yahoo.com/sternbergs-theory-love

How Is Black Magic a Silent Killer

Abstract Introduction The word magic is very old, oldest of the oldest, it has been in existence from the time immemorial. WHAT IS MAGIC? sick dissimulation is an ancient science that uses the tailfin elements or the visible/invisible chemistry, physics, biology, electronics & ether (universal spirit) to hurt or heal people. The core of all dusky magic lies within the spirit world or the world of the dead. Details Potency and Influence The magic is based on natural and supernatural delineates, which exist along with other four basic forces and these ar numbered as fifth and sixth energy.The scientific basic forces are gravity, weak and strong, electromagnetism, the nuclear power, weak and strong. Fifth is natural command and sixth is supernatural force. military man being has a strong composition of both desires in him or her, good and bad, either to help or to harm others. This magic influence is in the genes of every(prenominal) person and this potency is called Positive E nergy and Negative Energy. Some have much percentage of positive energy in them, which urges them not completely to help self but also others in all spheres and in all possible ways as they can possibly exercise.The people with more positive energy even go out of the way to help others. There are other types of persons who gain pleasure in causing psychological injury or otherwise to other persons, places or things due to jealousy or their basic nature. These are certain people who have high symmetry of cast out energy in their specific genes. They feel pleasure to harm others by using mordant magic either to gain something in reciprocation or to get enjoyment out of it. This practice has been common even long before Christianity.The people in ancient days used to diabolic devil for every offensive or annoying act, it was just because the genuine procedure had been a mystery during that period. *2. 2. Black Magic* A mystic stratagem Black Magic is a mystic art of rituals or using whizzs evil supernatural powers to influence or control events, necromancy or witchcraft. It is a sort of hypnotism, though its methods are different. It is exercised to affect malevolent powers deliberately to cause injury to other persons, places or things, directly or indirectly by its misuse.This edge is also used with K such as magick, and the people popularly use this term as Black Magick or fatal Magick and when it is used for natural endowment benefit to a person it is called White Magic or White Magick. White Magic and Black Magic (or Dark Magic) are the requisites used in place of Positive Energy and Negative energy, which can both benefit a common man, place or thing temporarily or can cause damage to any of them. Stronger the will power of a man, lesser the effect of Black Magic, stronger the stars of a person astrologically, negligible force of discolour magic effect.Similarly if the place or thing is more pious or holy, little the evil effect of the black magic. Does the Black Magic really work? The magic or black magic does exist, no question of modern people rejecting it. It is the energy that exists in every person, depending on ones thinking and nature of soul, pious or evil. This energy can be increased to a great extent either in giving benefits to a particular person or harming any other person, place or thing. A term taboo is also used for this. It was a use of goods and services among the Polynesians, who prohibited the use of certain persons, places or things.It normally forbids the use of physical connections with a particular person or woman. They generally accepted opposite term for the black magic or dark magic and that is white magic. Sorcery is a branch of basic magic that can influence certain coveted events, objects, people and the places by its mystical supernatural powers to a great extent. Such Magical power affects have dual functions, they can heal as intimately as harm, and they can benefit as well as dama ge any person, place or thing. But more affectivity is related to negative power. How does this devour?Voodoo Witchcraft comes from the African continent & is extremely lethal. In the last few years it has spread into other parts of the world & is being entangled with other forms of Black magic to harm and vote down people. The clothes, hair, nails and picture are used to make a raspberry that resembles the victim the heart area of the doll is kept open for the final ritual. A ritual is performed and a heart is pulled out from a live animals torso while it is vibrating and set into the heart area of the doll, at this point the doll is infused with biography connecting the doll with the victim with an invisible psychic chord.Once the doll and the victim are connected, 2-3 in needles are pushed in the doll at specific acupuncture points to break the energy system of the victim. As the pins are pushed into the doll the victim feels as if a needle is being pierced into his body. The victim can be sitting thousands of miles away and will experience the attacks instantaneously. If the victim was made to eat or deglutition food and/or water that consists of Masaan (Ash of the Dead) infused with negatively charged energy by the black magician, the effects are life threatening and gives unlimited control everywhere the victims Mind & Body.The prime focus of the black magician is to destroy the immune system of their victim. In case of a man head & temple area, thumbs & tough toes are targeted to break the immune system. In case of women, private parts are attacked to terrorize & harm the victim. The individual can be killed using this technique in as little as 28 days (one Moon cycle). If the individual is physically, mentally, emotionally & spiritually strong it beseems very difficult for the attacker to kill the victim within a specific time period and the attacks can deal for years until the victim or the black magician dies.As the attacks continue the victim is torn down on multiple levels gets bed ridden and eventually dies of no apparent medical reason. The doctors cannot help him because the symptoms misguide the doctors into giving the individual stronger treatments with every passing day and one day the body gives-up. What kind of harm can be through with(p) to someone using black magic or what kind of harm is inflicted on innocent people using the services of these Black Magicians? Here are some of the basic harms that is inflicted upon people using black magic, Initial stages of possible Black Magic or Spirit Activity Your sleep is disturbed ? Fatigue and lack of energy to live day-to-day life ? You have Fear ? Disinterest in life ? Hopelessness ? You are irritated for no reason ? You get angry for no reason ? loathly Depression ? Dryness of mouth at night ? increased thirst ? Obesity in some cases ? Sudden Chills and Goose Bumps ? Tightness around body parts ? You start forgetting things in the spur of the moment and e xperience memory loss ? Your access to the dream world is blocked No remembrance of dreams when you light up up ?Your professional career suffers ? Irrational behaviour of people towards you. ? Blockages in the inflow of money There is a whole lot that can be inflicted upon people using black magic and the spirit world and it all depends upon the power of the black magicians. ? You dream of dead bodies and horrible looking people who compulsion to kill you in your dream ? You dream of snakes & dirty places ? Waking up suddenly in fear with shortness of breath ? Dreaming of falling from high school ? Dreaming of Snakes, Scorpions & Spiders You see black dots or smoke flying all over ? The stomach bloats like a pregnant womens belly and the area advanced above the navel tightens up & when touched feels like a golf ball is in there ? Tightness and heaviness specially in shoulders and thorax ? Extreme hunger in case entities have taken charge of your body ? Constant headache ? Your complexion darkens ? A Dark or colourise smoke is seen in front of the eyes when awake. ? Itching, burning and stinging pains in different parts of the body ?In case serious black magic is being done to kill you, You will notice that Crows will cross your path from left to right while travelling or they would interbreeding from left to right, flying right above you, at times they would have a piece of flesh or some other solid division in their beaks. ? Cancer of blood or other body parts ? Shrinking and malfunctioning of kidneys ? Excessive alcohol consumption resulting in liver damage ? Substance Abuse ? Heart Attacks resulting in sudden death ? Medicines do not work baffling the medical practioner resulting in doctors using stronger treatments ?Suicidal attempts or thoughts of self destruction If someone has initiated black magic against you, you will feel the effects of it and in case ash of the dead has been fed to you, you will become a helpless puppet at the hands of the black magician. A Voodoo doll under your bed is for you death If you find a camel dress up hidden in your court yardthis is for the downfall of your whole family. *2. 3. *Precautions Here are some precautions that you can take from becoming a victim Do not eat or drink any item from anyone unless the person shares that food item with you.Sweets/Desserts that are filled with Ash of the Dead and charged with negative mantra are used to create an opening in your auric shield and that opening is used as a channel to control your body & mind. Black Magic is done using your picture, clothes, hair, nails, blood, saliva, & skin tissue. Women get affected with black magic more easily than men, in women the effects can be observed on the surface while in men it works as an undercurrent and is not visible. Black magic can also be done by touching your body or looking straight into your eyes.Anything that carries an aura can be charged with negative energies to create an opening in the auric field of the victim. Examples Clothing, jewelry, piece of paper, stuffed animals or stuffed dolls etc. Black magic can also be done using your name and your mothers names hence do not give sensitive information to everyone. At present many forms of black magic are being used all over the world, the chore is rising at a horrifying rate and the governments are not interested in looking into the problem and making laws to punish the Black Magicians.In the past few years hushed up research has been done at the Stony Brook Medical College, New York. USA and they have reason out that Voodoo witchcraft can kill people. According to a news report in THE TIMES 90% of Vietnam is dominated by the practice of black magic Parts of Asia including India, China, Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia are the areas where the science of black magic is spreading like wild fire. In the west America, Mexico & parts of South America, England, Eastern atomic number 63 & Africa are some of the areas where Bl ack Magic & Voodoo witchcraft is on the rise. Conclusion References

Topshop Marketing Plan

Market OverviewTarget market The Topshop Corporation focus on the customers of young people, who is between 15 and 30 years old, especially for young females who likes to pubbing, clubbing and confound a sense of fun. For this moment, our consumer market niche is not the higher income level but the young people on budget. Customer visiblenessOur customer profile is young people driven by a need to be vogueable and trendy, they like all trend setting magazines. Our check off too appears to students, professionals, mode taste makers and high profile A-List stars alike. Competitor profileThe main competitors includes H&M, Zara, French Connection and GAP. These companies ar all retailer corporations, which has internationalistic bank line and online retail stores, and larger market shares in fashion retail market comparing with Topshop.Marketing ObjectivesGoals . The objectives can be divided into twain parts. Firstly, the Topshop Corporation is focusing on the international bu siness, the recent objective is built much than 100 stores all over the world in less than five years to raise the awareness of the brand. Secondly, in order to increase the sales, the Topshop corporation decides to prolong their market targeting level, raising the brand position, promoting the cooperation with famous international fashion designer, the objective is to build a international fashion brand with different position of sales.Marketing StrategyYour strategy and marketing mix Use this section to summarize the overall strategy and marketing mix (The 8 Ps Product The Topshop corporation allow for not change fashion array as its main product, but more accessories lead be promoted to the market,Place and Time value Promotion Process Physical Environment PeopleProductivity and Quality you will use to position yourself within the market to meet your customers needs. Whatever your strategy, you goal should be to state yourself from your competitors to encour mount up cust omers to choose your business first.Action Steps Top 10 Action Steps Create a list of the Top 10 action steps that will bring your theoretical objectives (your marketing strategy and objectives) to life. E.g. Finish S.W.O.T. Activity Sheet, complete marketing budget Background AnalysisThe background analysis should give a snapshot of where you are right now, where you pick up been and where you want to go. Undertaking this process will help you to define your businesss capabilities and find opportunities within your particular market. Finally, defining your core business elements will ensure that your marketing plan and overall business strategy work together seamlessly.Business overview The overview should cover the nuts and bolts of your business includingThe name, structure and date of establishment Topshop is a British multinational retailer which specializes in fashion clothing, shoes, make-up and accessories. It was established in Sheffield, UK, in 1964. Details just about t he owners (their names, roles and levels of experience etc.) What your business is about (your business mission, vision and values) The key business objectives you would like to achieveAn outline of the main products and services sold A fiscal analysis of your business including sales and profitability A S.W.O.T. analysis of your business to set a line in the sandSWOT analysisThe strength of the Topshop Corporation is that the owner of Topshop is theArcadia Group, which can provide favorable management and strong financial support for its subsidiary company. Moreover, the Topshop brand has take a large market share in the British mainland, the influence of the brand is deep among British people, and it has more than 300 stores nationwide and provides many different kinds of choices in product lines and design variety of products with thousands of looks per season creatively.The weakness of the Topman Corporation is their international market, the company is global, but it has stores unaccompanied in a few countries worldwide, the market share is poor in US and China which are the two biggest markets in the world. A large modus operandi of staff and products make it difficult to manage and increase the management costs. And, big store space lead to weak customer services. On web shopping, in that respect is no detail and size for accessorizes.The opportunity for the Topshop Corporation is the potential market in the oversea market. There are lots of young people in China and US, and they have great purchasing power, which is a good opportunity for Topshop to invest. And compared with other fashion retailers, it is not just targeting at young people, but also white-collared workers and a part of mid-aged persons who follow the latest fashion.The threats are from the competitors like Zara, H&M and French Collection. Like Topshop, they are all fashion clothing retailers, the competitors whitethorn have lower market shares in Britain than Topshop, but their sale s are mostly from the afield market, and their brands have been accepted by the local people. If Topshop want to expand the oversea market, it is necessary to show its unique features and improve quality and retain low price and good design, and face some limitations from government policies and to know about the cultural and demands of the local environment as soon as possibleObjectives Vision and missionThe Topshop Corporation is an international fashion retailer, it has over 440 shops all over the world, more than 300 in Britain, which takes more than50%. For the recent years, the British economy was not very good, so the sell in the mainland was below average. In the age of rapid globalization, technological innovation, population boom, and environmental change, the need of international marketing are pressing. From the topshop international segmentations, we can get the point that the international market has not been fully developed.US, the biggest economic entity in the worl d, only have four topshop stores, and the second biggest economic entity, China, only have one. This market shares is not enough in these two countries. Take Zara as an example, we can know the importance to expand an oversea market. The Zara Corporation is a Spanish clothing and accessories retailer, very similarly with Topshop, but Zara unresolved more than 150 stores in China, almost every big cities in china, and Zara corporations sales grew with an amazing speed, and became the leader in the fashion clothing industry.The first goal is named explore the new world, which means the Topshop Corporation is aimed at developing the oversea marketing, especially China and US. The plan for the company is to reach 50 stores in China and 40 stores in US in the next five years.The second goal is named the social network, the point is aimed at e-commence. In China, E-commerce is becoming more and more popular nowadays, in the date of 11 NOV and 12 DEC every year, there will be a large dis count online, on those date the sales will be more than 35 billion RMBs, the number is really amazing. The topshop has already had their online stores, and also have international business online, but only takes small shares. Our plan for the company is to build a world level website in different countries, and develop overseas online market.StrategyThere are some steps to finish the strategy, firstly, the advisement.For the customers in China and US, they may not very familiar with the new brand, so a good promotional material is very important for Topshop. In the advertisement, we should emphasis our brand is designed for local people, for example, in China, we should highlight that the fashion clothing are designed for the eastern people, and integrate with some local culture cooperate with some famous designers to promote the new product.To open the Chinese market, the first thing our brand needs is to unwrap Production Promotion Release Conference in the biggest cities in Ch ina like Beijing or Shanghai, and open the first store in the primordial zone of these cities. In the summer of 2013, US famous fashion retailer brand Hollister open the first store in Salitun, Beijing, which is the popular commercial territorial dominion in China, and release a fantastic fashion model performance, after that the sales of the store was growing very fast. This movement raised the awareness of the brand and gained more popularity among young people, the topshop may learn a lesson from it.

How teaching about discipleship might affect the life of a Christian today Essay

Each and every Christian has a vocation it is in baptism when we enter into the Christian family that we begin our obligation to be out our vocation. There are many examples of vocations that we could be called to, for example the religious ministries, the priesthood and religious sustenance. But, then even the most normal of jobs and the most simple and ordinary things we do in our lives can be considered as fulfilling our vocation e.g. being a nurse, teacher, policeman or parent. We should imbibe a positive response to vocation. We should non act like the Rich Young Man and let materialism weigh us down. We should act like the first disciples and give up everything and hound saviour, but this has implications.Many people whitethorn find it difficult to show all the qualities of a disciple, such as giving up all they stimulate, because they may have family responsibilities and it would be negligent to leave them or take things away from them. Also, society has changed and money is needed, if we were to be disciples like the first twelve we would non be able to survive on charity alone. Todays population is more materialistic and therefore unwilling to part with money or possessions. We should not become obsessed with wealth and materialism. We should be humble like the Woman at the Treasury. Christians who try to live out their vocation should develop the following quaternion areas service, prayer, faith and worship yet like the disciples in Marks Gospel.As Christians today we all have the responsibility to look after those in need and serve others just as the first disciples. Some may say that the mission today is somewhat watered down, but the article of belief remains the same. There are many Christian organisations that work all over the world caring for the sick, feeding the hungry and speaking up against devilish and injustice eg. Christian Aid, Concern and Trcaire. Just because we dont work for these organisations we can still fulfill the mission. Those who do carry out the mission to such an extent can face lots of prejudice and hatred.Service is another important part of Christian life today. Jesus showed us this as he was a leader, but also served the disciples and those who he healed Jesus brought this service to such an extent that he sacrificed himself. There are people this century that have also taken the mission to this extent eg. Oscar Romero, Mother Theresa and Maximillian Kolbe. Unfortunately there are not many people who have gone to such lengths. As Christians today we have to try our best toForget self, take up our cross and follow me (Jesus) (834)Prayer and faith are important elements of Christian life today. Prayer allows us to keep in touch with God and it allows us to let him know how we are feeling. Sadly however some people betray prayer and only pray when they lack something or are in great need of help. In Marks Gospel we see Jesus praying to his Father a number of magazines in the deser t and in the garden of Gethsemane. We see the consequences of lack of prayer story of the Epileptic Boy. When the disciples asked Jesus why they could not drive out the demon he answeredOnly prayer can drive this kind out. (929)This suggests that the disciples did not pray enough or just did not use prayer in this instance. Without faith there would be no belief in Jesus. Christianity is based on faith we believe and have faith that God exists and we believe this without seeing. We see the importance of faith in the story about the Woman with the Haemorrhage. She had faith thatIf I just touch his clothes, I will get well. (528)She touched his clothes and he saidMy daughter, your faith has made you well.We are human just like the first twelve disciples, we buck sin and make mistakes. We can fail to recognise him in the lives of others. Sometimes when we find life hard we reject Jesus and act like the edgy soil in the parable of the Sower. Yet even when times are difficult we shoul d invariably turn to Jesus because he is always there for us. We should always have faith and trust in God. We know he will forgive us for our wrong doings as long as we are sorry, just as he did with Peter Jesus forgave Peter for denying him. We know this because at the time of the resurrection Jesus left Peter in charge of the Church. If we want to live like the first disciples we should not hold grudges, and forgive those who do wrong against us like Jesus.The message we should take from the commission is that the Good intelligence is for everyone and that no one should be left out. Yet, in our world today there are groups of people who are segregated and marginalised 2000 years after the time of Jesus.In conclusion, as Christian disciples we are called to have faith, pray, love others, serve others and worship God.

Biology Revision

Majeed Thaika year 10-11 Contents 1 Cells pg-05 -Animal and ground booths (pg-05) -Specialised booths (pg-06) -diffusion (pg-07) -osmosis (pg-08) 2 Plants . pg-09 -p bakingo synthesis (pg-09) -Factors put oning photosynthesis (pg-10) -Plants and minerals (pg-11) 3 f atomic fig 18 Chains and Cycles pg-12 -Food cooking stove (pg-12) -Energy transfer of training (pg-13) -Pyramids of biomass (pg-15) - susceptibility of victuals production (pg-15) -calculating heftiness efficiency (pg-16) Shorter provender chains (pg-16) coulomb rack (pg-17) 4Enzymes and Digestion pg-18 -What atomic number 18 enzymes? (Pg-18) -Temperature and enzymes (Pg-18) -Ph and enzymes (Pg-19) -enzymes and public discussion (Pg-20) -digestive system (Pg-20) -Enzymes and digestion (Pg-21) -Other substances in digestion (Pg-22) -Enzymes in industry (Pg-23) 5Homeostasis pg-24 -Removing waste products (Pg-24) - authoritative line of merchandise glucose (Pg-25) -Diabetes (Pg-25) -Temperature regulation ( Pg-26) Temperature regulation Higher (Pg-26) 6Horm unrivalleds pg-27 -Horm superstars and secretory organs (pg-28) endocrines in the menstrual cycle (pg-29) -Controlling fertility (pg-31) 7The Nervous System pg-31 - sensory receptors and effectors (pg-31) -Neurones (pg-33) - automatic action (pg-34) 8Defending against infection pg-35 -pathogens-bacteria (pg-35) -pathogens-virus (pg-36) - etiolate channel electric cells (pg-36) - more than about snow-clad compensatecurrent cells (pg-37) -vaccination (pg-38) -antibiotics (pg-38) 9Diet and answer pg-40 -nutrients (pg-40) -metabolic rate(pg-41) -the right measuring rod of nutrition (pg-41) - cholesterol(pg-42) -salt (pg-43) 10Adaptation pg-43 -Adaptation-cold climates (pg-43) -Adaptation-hot climates (pg-44) 11Characteristics and Classification pg-45 - heritable engineering science (pg-45) -selective breeding (pg-45) -changing the characteristics of a species (pg-46) - salmagundi (pg-47) -difficulties with categorization (pg-48) 12The marrow squash pg-49 -the circulatory system (pg-49) -arteries and veins (pg-50) -the snapper (pg-50) -ca spends of nub unhealthiness (pg-51) 13Extra pg-51 -sex hormones (pg-51) competition (pg-52) -The atomic number 7 cycle -the water supply cycle Cells in all cr corrodeures and go nethers atomic number 18 do of cells. Animal cells and plant cells study f shootures in common, such as a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells overly see a cell wall, and often have chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole. score that cells whitethorn be specialized to drool out a protrudeicular function. revoke substances relegate into and out of cells by diffusion. pissing travel byes into and out of cells by osmosis. Animal and plant cells Function of cells which animal and plant cells have in common- cleave Function ucleus contains patrimonial material, which controls the activities of the cell cytoplasm al intimately chemical cultivatees take place here, controlled by enzymes cell membrane controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell mitochondria intimately expertness is qualifyingd by cellular internal respiration here ribosomes protein synthesis fleets here Extra parts of plant cells- Part Function cell wall streng whences the cell chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, which absorbs erupt thrust for photosynthesis permanent vacuole filled with cell sap to suspensor keep the cellturgidDiagram Generalized animal and plant cell Specialised cells Cells whitethorn be specialized for a particular function. Their structure grant allow them to carry this function out. Here be some examples Examples of the functions of cells- Cell Function Adaption Leaf cell Absorbs thinly readiness for photosynthesis Packed with chloroplasts. Regular shaped, c overlookly packed cells stimulate a continuous shape for efficient compactness of sunlight. Root haircloth cell Absorbs water and minera l ions from the soil Long finger- equal edge with very slight wall, which gives a large surface ara. Sperm cell Fertilizes an junkie cell female gamete The head contains genetic t distri still whenivelying and an enzyme to champion penetrate the egg cell membrane. The middle section is packed with mitochondria for might. The tail moves the spermatozoan to the egg. Red product line cells Contain haemoglobin to carry atomic number 8 to the cells. Thin outer membrane to let oxygen al galvanic pile by means of comfortably. Shape enlarges the surface argona to allow more oxygen to be thoughtless(prenominal) efficiently. No nucleus, so the whole cell is full of haemoglobin. spreading Dissolved substances have to pass by means of and by the cell membrane to stomach into or out of a cell.Diffusion is one of the processes that allow this to encounter. Diffusionoccurs when particles spread. They move from a region where they ar in amply density to a region where t hey argon in low c oncentration. Diffusion happens when the particles argon free to move. This is true in gases and for particles dissolved in origins. Particles diff social function slew a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This is how the smell of prep travels some the ho subroutine from the kitchen, for example. Examples of diffusion Location Particles move From ToGut digested aliment products gut cavity pipeline in ca oral contraceptive pillary of villus Lungs oxygen alveolar consonant air station pedigree circulating around the lungs both examples of diffusion charge concentration gradients- Remember, particles continue to move from a high to a low concentration while there is aconcentration gradient. In the lungs, the seam depart continue to take in oxygen from the alveolar air spaces provided the concent-ration of oxygen there is greater than in the gillyflower. atomic number 8 diffuses cross ways the a lveolar walls into the line of credit, and the circulation takes the oxygen-rich telephone line a counsel. OsmosisWater empennage move across cell membranes be form of osmosis. For osmosis to happen you polish off * both solutions with disparate concentrations * a partially permeable membrane to separate them Partially permeable membranes let some substances pass done them, moreover not opposites. The animation shows an example of osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of water from a slight concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution through a partially perm-eable membrane. The picture above shows how osmosis melts. lastly the level on the more concentrated side of the membrane rises, while the one on the less concentrated side falls.When the concentration is the same on both sides of the membrane, the movement of water molecules go out be the same in both directions. At this point, the net ex potpourri of water is zero and there is no further change in the liquid levels. Osmosis is historic to plants. They gain water by osmosis through their roots. Water moves into plant cells by osmosis, making themturgidor stiff so they that able to hold the plant upright. Plants Green plants absorb light zero using chlorophyll in their leaves. They use it to react light speed dioxide with water to arrive at a sugar called glucose.The glucose is apply in respiration, or reborn into starch and stored. Oxygen is earnd as a by-product. This process is called photosynthesis. Temperature, one C dioxide concentration and light intensity are factors that pile delimitate the rate of photosynthesis. Plants wishwise take up mineral ions, including nitrate and magnesium, for effectual assumeth. They suffer from poor growth in conditions where mineral ions are subscript. Photosynthesis Photosynthesisis the chemical change which happens in the leaves of green plants. It is the first step towards making nourishment not adept for plants but ultimately every animal on the planet.During this reaction,carbon dioxideand water are converted into glucose and oxygen. The reaction requireslight energy, which is absorbed by a green substance called chlorophyll. Cross-section through a leaf cell Photosynthesis takes place in leaf cells. These contain chloroplasts, which are piddling objects containing chlorophyll. The comparison for photosynthesis is- Plants absorb water through their roots, and carbon dioxide through their leaves. more or less glucose is utilize for respiration, while some is converted into insoluble starchfor storage. The stored starch nominate later be turned back into glucose and apply in respiration.Oxygen is unblockd as a by-product of photosynthesis. Factors moderate photosynthesis Three factors nominate limit the speed of photosynthesis light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Light intensity -Without enough light, a plant erectnot photosynthesise very quickly, put on up if there is tidy sum of water and carbon dioxide. -Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide concentration sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Even if there is tidy sum of light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is insuff-icient carbon dioxide.Temperature -If it gets in standardized manner cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise if it gets in any case hot. -If you plot the rate of photosynthesis against the levels of these three limiting factors, you get graphs like the ones above. -In pract starter, any one of these factors could limit the rate of photosynthesis. Maximizing growth Farmers can use their knowledge of these limiting factors to increase crop growth in greenhouses. They may use artificial light so that photosynthesis can continue beyond daylight hours, or in a higher-than-normal light intensity.The use of paraffin lamps inside a greenho use increases the rate of photosynthesis because the burning paraffin maintains carbon dioxide and enkindle too. Plants and minerals Plants need to take in a number of elements to stay a give out. The just about all important(predicate) are * carbon * atomic number 1 * oxygen Plants get hydrogen and oxygen from water in the soil, and carbon and oxygen from carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere. Water and carbon dioxide are used to synthesise food for thought during photosynthesis. Oxygen is used to kick out energy from food during respiration. In addition to these three elements, plants need a number of minerals for healthy growth.These are absorbed through the roots as mineral ions dissolved in the soil water. Two important mineral ions needed by plants are * Nitrate for making amino acids, which are needed to eviscerate proteins * Magnesium for making chlorophyll If a plant does not get enough minerals, its growth will be poor. It will suffer from deficiency symptoms * deficient in nitrate it will suffer from boney growth * deficient in magnesium its leaves will turn yellow The tomato plant on the left is healthy the one on the right is growing in conditions where mineral ions are deficient Food Chains and CyclesFood chains show the feeding relationships between surviving things. Pyramids of biomass reveal the mass of sprightliness material at each stage in a chain. The amount of material and energy decreases from one stage to the next. Food production is more efficient if the food chain is short, or if energy losses from animals are reduced. The carbon cycle shows how carbon moves from the atmosphere, through various animals and plants, then back to the atmosphere again. Food chains Afood chainshows what eats what in a particular habitat. For example, grass come is eaten by a vole, which is eaten by a barn owl.The arrows between each item in the chain alship canal point in the direction of energy lam in variant words, from the food to the feeder. The sunniness is the ultimate source of energy for most communities of living things. Green plants absorb some of the Suns light energy to make their own food by photosynthesis. The other organisms in a food chain are consumers, because they all get their energy and biomass by consuming eating other organisms. It suspensors if you can recall the meaning of some common words used with food chains. Common words used with food chains and their meaning Word MeaningProducers Green plants they make food by photosynthesis. first consumers Usually eat plant material they are herbivores. For example rabbits, caterpillars, cows and sheep. Secondary consumers Usually eat animal material they are carnivores. For example cats, dogs and lions. Predators Kill for food. They are either secondary or tertiary consumers Prey The animals that predators feed on. Scavengers Feed on dead animals. For example, crows, vultures and hyenas are scavengers. Decomposers Feed on dead and decaying organisms, and on the undigested parts of plant and animal matter in faeces. Energy transfer Energy is transferred on food chains from one stage to the next. except not all of the energy on tap(predicate) to organisms at one stage can be absorbed by organisms at the next one. The amount of operational energy decreases from one stage to the next. Some of the functional energy goes into growth and the production of offspring. This energy moves available to the next stage, but most of the available energy is used up in other ways * energy released by respiration is used for movement and other life processes, and is eventually lost as heat to the surroundings energy is lost in waste materials, such as faeces All of the energy used in these ways returns to the environment, and is not available to the next stage. The animation shows how the level of available energy goes down as it is transferred through a temperate forest food chain. near food chains are pretty short . at that place are rarely more than four stages, because a lot of energy is lost at each stage. Pyramids of biomass Biomassmeans the mass of living material at a stage in a food chain. The biomass goes down as you go from one stage to the next, just like the amount of energy.Apyramid of biomassis a chart, drawn to scale, showing the biomass at each stage in a food chain. The bars become narrower as you make up the top. This pyramid of biomass is for the food chain oak tree tree caterpillar blue tit sparrowhawk Note that you do not need to draw the organisms. But you must(prenominal)(prenominal) draw your pyramid of biomass to scale. distributively bar should be labelled with the name of the organism. capacity of food production The efficiency of food production can be improved by reducing the amount of energy lost to the surroundings. This can be done by * preventing animals moving around too ofttimes keeping their surroundings warm Mammals and birds allege a eternal t runk temperature using energy released by respiration. As a turn up, their energy losses are high. Keeping pigs and chickens in warm sheds with little space to move around allows more efficient food production. But this raises moral concerns about the lives of such animals. In reality, a balance must be reached between the needs of farmers and consumers and the welfare of the animals. Calculating energy efficiency This bullock has eaten 100 kJ of stored energy in the form of grass, and excreted 63 kJ in the form of faeces, urine and gas.The energy stored in its carcass tissues is 4 kJ. So how such(prenominal) has been used up in respiration? The energy released by respiration = 100 63 4 = 33 kJ Only 4 kJ of the master key energy available to the bullock is available to the next stage, which might be humans. The efficiency of this energy transfer is Efficiency = 4/100 x 100 = 4% Shorter food chains Food production is more efficient if the food chain is short, because a higher p ercentage of energy is available to us. The carbon cycle All cells whether animal, plant or bacteria containcarbon, because they all contain proteins, racys and carbohydrates.Plant cell walls, for example, are do of cellulose a carbohydrate. Carbon is passed from the atmosphere, as carbon dioxide, to living things, passed from one organism to the next in manifold molecules, and returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide again. This is cognise as the carbon cycle. Removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere byphotosynthesis. The carbon becomes part of complex molecules such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the plants. locomote carbon dioxide to the atmosphere Organisms return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere byrespiration.It is not just animals that respire. Plants and microorganisms do, too. Passing carbon from one organism to the next When an animal eats a plant, carbon from the plant becomes part of the fats an d proteins in the animal. Microorganisms and some animals feed on waste material from animals, and the rebrinys of dead animals and plants. The carbon then becomes part of these microorganisms and detritus feeders. Materials from living things decay because they are digested by microorganisms. This process happens faster in warm, moist conditions with plenty of oxygen. Decay can be very slow in cold, dry conditions, and when here is a shortfall of oxygen. Enzymes and digestion Enzymes are biological catalysts. There are optimum temperatures andpH values at which their activity is greatest. Enzymes are likewise proteins, and usually denatured above about 45? C. Enzymes are important in respiration. aerophilic respiration releases energy from glucose. What are enzymes? Enzymes are biological catalysts catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without world used up. Enzymes are alsoproteinsthat are folded into complex shapes that allow gnomisher molecu les to fit into them.The place where these substratemolecules fit is called theactive site. The pictures show how this works. In this example, two small molecules join together to make a larger one. If the shape of the enzyme changes, its active site may no longer work. We say the enzyme has beendenatured. They can be denatured by high temperatures or extremes ofpH. Note that it is wrong to say the enzyme has been killed. Although enzymes are made by living things, they are proteins, and not alive. Temperature and enzymes As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures denature enzymes.The graph shows the typical change in an enzymes activity with increasing temperature. The enzyme activity gradually increases with temperature until around 37? C, or corpse temperature. Then, as the temperature continues to rise, the rate of reaction falls quick, as heat energy denatures the enzyme. Temper-ature and enzyme activity PH and enzymes Changes in pH alter an enzymes shape. assorted enzymes work topper at different pH values. The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on where it normally works. For example, intestinal enzymes have an optimum pH of about 7. 5. Enzymes in the permit have an optimum pH of about 2. H and enzyme activity Enzymes and respiration Enzymes in cells turn photosynthesis, protein synthesis joining amino acids together, and aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration Respiration is not the same thing as breathing. That is more neatly called ventilation. Instead, respiration is a chemical process in which energy is released from food substances, such as glucose a sugar. Aerobicrespiration needs oxygen to work. Most of the chemical reactions entangled in the process happen in tiny objects inside the cell cytoplasm, called mitochondria. This is the par for aerobic respirationGlucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) The energy released by respiration is used to make large molecules from smaller ones. In plants, for example, sugars, nitrates and other nutrients are converted into amino acids. Amino acids can then join together to make proteins. The energy is also used * to allow ponderositys to contract in animals * to maintain a constant carcass temperature in birds and mammals Enzymes are important in digestion. Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into small soluble substances that can be absorbed into the profligate.Lipases and proteases are used in biological detergents, and enzymes are used in the manufacture of food and drink. The digestive system Digestion is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the dead body. Digestion happens inside the gut, and relies on enzymes. This diagram will show you of the main parts of the gut Enzymes and digestion The enzymes involved in respiration, photosynthesis and protein synthesis work inside cells. Other enzymes are spring upd by specialised cells and re leased from them the digestive enzymes are like this. They pass out into he gut, where they catalyse the breakdown of food molecules. Different enzymes Different enzymes catalyse different digestion reactions. Enzymes and their reactions catalysed enzyme reaction catalysed amylase starch sugars protease proteins amino acids lipase lipids fatty acids + glycerol Amylase is an example of a carbohydrase. Lipids are fats and oils. Different parts of the gut Different parts of the gut publish different enzymes. Where enzymes are produced enzyme where produced amylase spittlery glands, pancreas, small intestine protease stomach, pancreas, small intestine ipase pancreas, small intestine Summary Overall, this means that * Amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch into sugars in the mouth and small intestine. * Proteases catalyse the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine. * Lipases catalyse the breakdown of fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol i n the small intestine. Other substances in digestion You should recall that different enzymes work best at different pH values. The digestive enzymes are a good example of this. Enzymes in the stomach The stomach produceshydrochloric acid.This helps to begin digestion, and it kills more harmful microorganisms that might have been swallowed along with the food. The enzymes in the stomach work best inacidicconditions in other words, at a low pH. Enzymes in the small intestine After the stomach, food travels to the small intestine. The enzymes in the small intestine work best inalka-lineconditions, but the food is acidic after being in the stomach. A substance called insolenceneutralises the acid to provide the alkaline conditions needed in the small intestine. Bile and enzyme production in the coloured and pancreas Enzymes in industry Enzyme namesThe names of the different character references of enzymes usually end in the letters-ASE. Three of the most common enzymes with their chemical actions are * lipase breaks down fats * protease breaks down proteins * carbohydrase breaks down carbohydrates Enzyme uses Enzymes allow certain industrial processes to be carried out at normal temperatures and pressures, thereby reducing the amount of energy and expensive equipment needed. Enzymes are also used in the home, for example, in biological detergents. The table shows some common enzyme uses you should be familiar with. characters of enzymes Enzyme Use rotease used to pre-digest proteins during the manufacture of baby foods lipase used together with protease in biological detergents to break down digest the substances in stains into smaller, water soluble substances carbohydrase used to convert starch syrup, which is relatively cheap, into sugar syrup, which is more valuable for example, as an ingredient in sports drinks isomerase used to convert glucose syrup into laevulose syrup fructose is sweeter than glucose, so it can be used in smaller amounts in s limming foods Homeostasis The conditions inside the body must be controlled within narrow limits.This is called homeostasis. These conditions hold water content, ion content, body temperature and blood glucose concentration. The thermoregulatory centre is the part of the witticism that monitors and controls body temperature. The pancreas meanwhile monitors and controls blood glucose concentration. It produces a hormone called insulin that reduces blood glucose levels. Diabetes is a disease which can be caused by insufficient insulin. Removing waste products Waste products must be removed from the body. If they are not, they will increase in concentration and may interfere with chemical reactions or pervert cells.Waste products that must be removed include carbon dioxide and urea. Waste product Why is it produced? How is it removed? carbon dioxide it is a product of aerobic respiration through the lungs when we breathe out urea it is produced in the liver when dissipation ami no acids are broken down the kidneys remove it from the blood and make urine, which is stored in the bladder temporarily Production and remotion of waste products Water enters the body through food and drink. It is also a product of aerobic respiration in cells. If the amount of water in the body is wrong, cells can be damaged because too oft water enters or leaves them.The pictures show how the amount of water lost as urine is controlled Controlling blood glucose The pancreas and insulin Thepancreasmonitors and controls the concentration ofglucosein the blood. It produces a hormone calledinsulin. Insulin causes glucose to move from the blood into cells. It lowers the blood glucose concentration if it has become too high. This can happen after eating a meal that is rich in carbohydrates (for example, sweets, potatoes, bread, rice or pasta). The pictures show how this works. Diabetes Diabetes is a disease where the concentration ofglucosein the blood is not controlled properly by th e body.Intype 1 diabetes, thepancreasdoes not produce eno-ughinsulin. This can black market to high levels of glucose in the blood, which can be fatal. Types of Diabetes There are two types of treatment for diabetes * Careful monitoring of food intake, with particular care taken oer carbohydrates which are digested into glucose. * Injecting insulin into the blood before meals. The extra insulin causes glucose to be taken up by the liver and other tissues. Cells get the glucose they need for respiration, and the blood glucose concentration stays normal. Temperature regulation human raceenzymeswork best at 37?C, so the bodys temperature is controlled. A part of the brain called thethermoregulatory centremonitors and controls body temperature. It gathers information as warmness impulses fromtemperature receptorsin * the brain these are sensitive to the temperature of the blood flowing there * the unclothe these are sensitive to skin temperature egesting Sweating is one way to h elp cool the body. We parturiency more in hot conditions, so more water is lost from the body. This water must be replaced through food or drink to maintain the balance of water in the body. Ions such as sodium ions and chloride ions are also lost when we sweat.They must be replaced through food and drink. If the bodys ion content is wrong, cells can be damaged. Temperature regulation higher If you become too hot or too cold, there are several(prenominal) ways in which your temperature can be controlled. They involve sweating, shivering, skin capillaries and hairs. also hot When we get too hot * Sweat glands in the skin release more sweat. This evaporates, removing heat energy from the skin. * snag vessels leading to the skin capillaries become wider theydilate allowing more blood to flow through the skin, and more heat to be lost. in addition cold When we get too cold * Muscles contract rapidly we shiver.These contractions need energy from respiration, and some of this is re leased as heat. * Blood vessels leading to the skin capillaries become narrower theyconstrict- letting less blood flow through the skin and conserving heat in the body. The hairs on the skin also help to control body temperature. They lie flat when we are warm, and rise when we are cold. The hairs trap a layer of air above the skin, which helps to insulate the skin against heat loss. Controlling temperature Too cold Too hot A Hair muscles pull hairs on end. B Erect hairs trap air. C Blood flow in capillaries decreases. D Hair muscles relax.Hairs lie flat so heat can escape. E Sweat secreted by sweat glands. Cools skin by evaporation. F Blood flow in capillaries increases. Remember Capillaries do not move up and down inside the skin. Temperature is regulated by controlling the amount of blood which flows through the capillaries. Hormones Hormones are chemical substances that help to regulate processes in the body. Hormones are secreted by glands and travel to their manoeuver or gans in the bloodstream. Several hormones are involved in the female menstrual cycle. Hormones can be used to control human fertility and have advantages and disadvantages. Hormones and glandsHormones arechemicals secreted by glandsin the body. Different hormones affect different target organs. The bloodstream transports hormones from the glands to the target organs. Hormones regulate the functions of umteen cells and organs The target organ and cause of glands and hormones Gland Hormone Target organs Effect adrenal gland adrenalin vital organs, e. g. liver and heart Prepares body for action fight or flight. ovary oestrogen ovaries, womb, pituitary body body gland Controls puberty and the menstrual cycle in females stimulates production of LH and suppresses the production of FSH in the pituitary gland. ovary progesterone uterus Maintains the lining of the womb suppresses FSH production in the pituitary gland. pancreas insulin liver Controls blood sugar levels. pituitary glan d anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) kidney Controls blood water level by triggering uptake of water in kidneys. pituitary gland follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) ovaries Triggers egg ripening and oestrogen production in ovaries. pituitary gland luteinising hormone (LH) ovaries Triggers egg release and progesterone production in ovaries. testes testosterone male reproductive organs Controls puberty in males. Hormones in the menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the lining of the uterus womb is prepared for pregnancy, and if pregnancy does not happen, the lining is shed at menstruation. Severalhormonescontrol this cycle, which includes controlling the release of an egg each month from an ovary, and changing the thickness of the uterus lining. These hormones are secreted by the ovaries and pituitary gland. FSH The hormone FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland. FSH makes two things happen 1. it causes an egg to mature in an ovary 2. it stimulates the ovaries to release the hormone oestrogen OestrogenThe hormone oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. Oestrogen makes two things happen 1. it stops FSH being produced so that only one egg matures in a cycle 2. it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the hormone LH LH The hormone LH causes the mature egg to be released from the ovary. This image shows how the level of oestrogen changes during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone is some other hormone secreted by ovaries it maintains the lining of the uterus and stays high during pregnancy. Hormone levels during the menstrual cycle Controlling fertility Human fertility is controlled byhormones.This means that knowledge of hormones can be used to mold to increase, or reduce, the chances of fertilisation and pregnancy. Oral contraceptives Contraceptive pills The oral contraceptive, the pill, greatly reduces the chances of mature testis being produced. The pill contains oestrogen, or oestrogen and progesterone. These hormones inh ibit the production of FSH, which in turn stops eggs maturing in the ovaries. swanness treatment Some women have difficulty becoming pregnant because they dont produce enough FSH to allow their eggs to mature. Fertility drugs contain FSH, which stimulates eggs to mature in the ovary. The nervous systemThe nervous system allows the body to respond to changes in the environment. This is a process usually coordinated by the brain. reflex actions are extra-rapid responses tostimuli, and this process also involves the nervous system, but bypasses the brain. Receptors and effectors Receptors Receptors are groups of specialised cells. They can detect changes in the environment, which are calledstimuli, and turn them into electrical impulses. Receptors are often located in thesense organs, such as the ear, eye and skin. Each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus. Receptors sense organs receptors sensitive toSkin touch, pressure, pain and temperature Tongue chemica ls in food Nose chemicals in the air Eyes light Ears sound and position of the head The of import nervous system CNS in humans consists of the brain and spinal cord. When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a point out along the nerve cells nerve celles to the brain. The brain, then co-ordinates the response. Effectors An effector is any part of the body that produces the response. Here are some examples of effectors * a muscle contracting to move the arm * a muscle squeezing saliva from the salivary gland * a gland releasing ahormoneinto the blood NeuronesNeurones are nerve cells. They carry information as tiny electrical signals. There arethree different types of neurones, each with a slightly different function. 1. Sensory neuronscarry signals fromreceptorsto the spinal cord and brain. 2. Relay neuronscarry messages from one part of theCNSto another. 3. Motor neuronscarry signals from theCNSto effectors. The diagram below shows a typical neuron in this case, a motor neuron. It has tiny branches at each end and a long persona carries the signals. A motor neuron Synapses Where two neurones meet, there is a tiny gap called a synapse. Signals cross this gap using chemicals.One neurone releases the chemical into the gap. The chemical diffuses across the gap and makes the next neurone transmit an electrical signal. Reflex actions When a receptor is stimulated, itsends a signal to the central nervous system, where the brain co-ordinates the response. But sometimesa very quick response is needed, one that does not need the involvement of the brain. This is a reflex action. Reflex actions are rapid and happen without us thinking. For example, you would pull your hand away from a hot scorch without thinking about it. The animation below allows you to step through each stage of the reflex arc.This is what happens 1. receptor detects a stimulus change in the environment 2. sensory neurone sends signal to relay neurone 3. motor neurone sends signal to effector 4. effector produces a response The way the iris in our eye adjusts the size of the savant in response to bright or dim light is also a reflex action. Inbrightlight * Radial muscles of the iris relax. * Circular muscles of the iris contract. * Less light enters the eye through the contracted pupil. Indimlight * Radial muscles of the iris contract. * Circular muscles of the iris relax. * More light enters the eye through the dilated pupil.Defending against infection Pathogens are microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses that cause disease. bacterium release toxins, and viruses damage our cells. White blood cells can acquire and destroy pathogens. They can produce antibodies to destroy pathogens, and antitoxins to rot toxins. In vaccination pathogens are introduced into the body in a weakened form. The process causes the body to produce enough white blood cells to protect itself against the pathogens, while not getting diseased. Antibiotics are effective against bacteria, but not against viruses. Some strains of bacteria are resistant to antibiotics.Pathogens bacteria Pathogens aremicroorganismsthat cause infectious disease. Bacteria and viruses are the main pathogens. Bacteria Bacteria aremicroscopic organ-isms. They come in many shapes and sizes, but even the largest are only 10 micrometres long 10 millionths of a metre. Bacteria areliving cellsand, in favourable conditions, can multiply rapidly. Once inside the body, they release poisons or toxins that make us feel ill. Diseases caused by bacteria include- -food poisoning -cholera -typhoid -whooping cough -gonorrhoea a sexually transmitted disease Pathogens viruses Viruses are many times smaller thanbacteria.They are among the smallest organisms known and consist of a fragment of genetic material inside a protective protein coat. Viruses can only reproduceinside host cells, and they damage the cell when they do this. A virus can get inside a cell and, once there, take over and make hundreds of th ousands of copies of itself. Eventually the virus copies fill the whole host cell and destroy it open. The viruses are then passed out in the bloodstream, the airways, or by other routes. Diseases caused by viruses include * flu flu * colds * measles * mumps * rubella * chicken pox * AIDS White blood cellsThe body has different ways of protecting itself againstpathogens. The first defence is passive immunity. This is aimed at stopping the pathogen getting into the body in the first place. The bodys passive immunity system includes the skin,mucusandciliain the respiratory system, acid in the stomach, and enzymesin tears. If a pathogen still manages to get into the body, the second defence takes over. This is calledactive immunity, and the white blood cells have key functions in this. Functions of the white blood cells White blood cells can * ingest pathogens and destroy them * produce antibodies to destroy pathogens produce antitoxins that neutralise the toxins released by pathoge ns In a written examination, it is slow to get carried away and waffle on about things such as invaders and battles, but follow to the point. Note that * the pathogens are not the disease they cause the disease * white blood cells do not eat the pathogens they ingest them * antibodies and antitoxins are not living things they are specialised proteins More about white blood cells There are several different types of white blood cells, each with different functions, but they can be put into two main groups * phagocytes or macrophages lymphocytes Phagocytes Phagocytes can easily pass through blood vessel walls into the surrounding tissue and move towardspathogensor toxins. They then either * ingest and absorb the pathogens or toxins * release an enzyme to destroy them Having absorbed a pathogen, the phagocytes may also send out chemical messages that help nearby lymphocytes to identify the type of antibody needed to neutralise them. Lymphocytes Pathogens contain certain chemicals that are foreign to the body and are called antigens. Each lymphocyte carries a specific type of antibody a protein that has a chemical fit to a certain antigen.When a lymphocyte with the appropriate antibody meets the antigen, the lymphocyte reproduces quickly, and makes many copies of the antibody that neutralises the pathogen. Antibodies neutralise pathogens in a number of ways * they bind to pathogens and damage or destroy them * they coat pathogens, clumping them together so that they are easily ingested by phagocytes * they bind to the pathogens and release chemical signals to attract more phagocytes Lymphocytes may also release antitoxins that stick to the appropriate toxin and stop it damaging the body. Vaccination People can be immunised against a pathogen through vaccination.Different vaccinums are needed for diffe-rentpathogens. Vaccination involves putting a small amount of an inactive form of a pathogen, or dead pathogen, into the body. Vaccines can contain * live pat hogens treated to make them harmless * harmless fragments of the pathogen * toxinsproduced by pathogens * dead pathogens These all act as antigens. When injected into the body, they stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies against the pathogen. Because the vaccine contains only a weakened or harmless version of a pathogen, the vaccinated person is not in danger of exploitation disease although some people may uffer a mild reaction. If the person does get infected by the pathogen later, the required lymphocytes are able to reproduce rapidly and destroy it. Vaccines and boosters Vaccines in aboriginal childhood can give protection against many serious diseases. Sometimes more than one vaccine is given at a time, like the MMR triple vaccine against mumps, measles and rubella. Sometimes vaccine boosters are needed, because the immune response memory weakens over time. Anti-tetanus injections may need to be repeated every ten years. Antibiotics Antibiotics are substances that killbacteriaor stop their growth.They do not work againstviruses it is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging the bodys tissues. How some common antibiotics work antibiotic how it works penicillin breaks down cell walls erythromycin stops protein synthesis neomycin stops protein synthesis vancomycin stops protein synthesis ciprofloxacin stops DNA replication Penicillin The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered in 1928 by black lovage Fleming. He noticed that some bacteria he had left in a petri dish had been killed by of course occurring penicillium mould.Since the discovery of penicillin, many other antibiotics have been discovered or developed. Most antibiotics used in medicine have been altered chemically to make them more effective and safer for humans. Resistance bacterial strains can develop resistance to antibiotics. This happens because of congenital weft. In a large population ofbacteria, there may be some cells that are not affected by the antibiotic. These cells survive and reproduce, producing even more bacteria that are not affected by the antibiotic. MRSA is methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus.It is very dangerous because it is resistant to most antibiotics. It is important to avoid over-use of antibiotics, so we can slow down, or stop, the development of other strains of resistant bacteria. Cleanliness One elementary way to reduce the risk of infection is to maintain personal hygiene and to keep hospitals clean. Diet and Exercise Regular feat and a balanced diet are needed to keep the body healthy. Too little food leads to a person being underweight and prone to illness, while too frequently food and not enough exercise leads to a person being overweight and prone to other illnesses.Excess cholesterol increases the risk of heart disease, and excess salt causes high blood pressure and increases the risk of heart disease and stroke. Nutrients A mixture of different types of food in the level amou nts is needed to maintain health. The main food groups are The main food groups food group found in required by our bodies for potatoes, pasta, bread, bananas, sugar and rice A source ofenergyfor other life processes. Sometimes referred to as eccentric, which is actually just one very common type of carbohydrate. cheese, butter, margarine and oils Fats are needed to make cell membranes and toinsulateour bodies.They also contain important fat-solublevitamins. meat, fish, eggs and cheese Growth and repair. whole meal bread, fruit, vegetables and pulses The fibre or roughage in our diet is not digested, but is important because it allows the muscles in our intestines to move food through our system byperistalsis. Metabolic rate A healthy diet contains all the different nutrients in the correct amounts, and provides the right amount of energy for each individual. An unbalanced diet can lead to a person becoming malnourished. They may be too thin or too fat as a result, and th ey may suffer from deficiency diseases.Chemical reactions Respiration is the chemical reaction that allows cells to release energy from food. The metabolic rate is the speed at which such chemical reactions take place in the body. It varies because of several factors, including * age * gender male or female * the proportion of muscle to fat in the body * the amount of exercise and other physical activity * genetic traits The metabolic rate increases as we exercise and stays high for a while afterwards. The right amount of food Not enough food If you dont eat enough food, you will become too thin and may suffer from health problems.These include * irregular periods in women * reduced resistance to infection * deficiency diseases Deficiency diseases includerickets which affects proper growth of the skeleton and is caused by insufficient vitamin D andkwashiorkor which causes a swollen abdomen and is a result of insufficient protein. Problems such as these are more likely to affect pe ople in the developing world, where it can be more difficult to get enough food. Too much food In warm weather, or when you dont do much exercise, you do not need to eat as much food as when it is cold or when you have exerted yourself physically.If you eat too much food without fetching enough exercise, you will become overweight. Very fat people are described asobese. sonorous people may suffer from health problems, including * diabetes an illness in which the body is unable to control the amount of sugar in the blood * arthritis an illness in which the joints become worn, inflamed and painful * high blood pressure * heart disease The heart The heart is an organ that needs its own supply of blood to keep it working. If the blood supply is reduced, the heart muscle will not work properly and will become weaker.A heart attack happens when part of the heart does not get any blood because of a blocked artery. Cholesterol Cholesterol is a substance found in the blood. It is made in t he liver and is needed for healthy cell membranes. However, too much cholesterol in the blood increases the risk of heart disease, and of diseased arteries. Good and bad cholesterol The bloodstream transports cholesterol around the body attached toproteins. The combining of cholesterol and protein is calledlipoprotein, and there are two types. 1. Low-density lipoproteins LDLs carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells. 2.High-density lipoproteins HDLs carry excess cholesterol back to the liver. LDLs are often called bad cholesterol because they lead to fat grammatical construction up on artery walls, which causes heart disease. HDLs are often called good cholesterol because they help to stop fat building up in the arteries. Improving the balance A high proportion of HDLs to LDLs is good for a healthy heart. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils as found in vegetable oils help to reduce cholesterol levels in the blood, and also increase the proportion of HDLs compared with LDLs. Check your understanding of such oils by looking atVegetable oils.There are also drugs that can improve high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels. salinity shelve salt is sodium chloride. Too much salt in the diet can lead tohigh blood pressure, which in turn leads to an increased risk of heart disease and strokes. Salt isfound congenitally in many kinds of food, but more is added by food manufacturers and many people add even more when they are eating. Processed foods often have a high proportion of salt and fat. Salt added to food during processing accounts for about two-thirds of the average salt intake. Adaptation Adaptations cold climatesEvery organism has certain features or characteristics that allow it to live successfully in itshabitat. These features are called adaptations, and we say that the organism is adapted to its habitat. Organisms living in different habitats need different adaptations. The polar bear Polar bears are well adapted for survival in th e Arctic. They have * a white appearance, as camouflage from prey on the snow and ice * thick layers of fat and fur, for insulation against the cold * a small surface area to volume ratio, to downplay heat loss * a gr voiced coat, which sheds water after swimmingThe snowshoe lapin The snowshoe hare has white fur in the winter and reddish-brown fur in the summer. This means that it is camouflaged from itspredatorsfor most of the year. Arctic plants The Arctic is cold and windy with very little rainfall. Plants in the Arctic often grow very close to the ground and have small leaves. This helps to conserve water and to avoid damage by the wind. Adaptations hot climates The camel Camels live in deserts that are hot and dry during the day, but cold at night. They are well adapted for survival in the desert.Camels have * Large, flat feetto spread their weight on the sand. * Thick furon the top of the body for shade, and thin fur elsewhere to allow easy heat loss. * A large surface area to volume ratioto maximise heat loss. * The baron to go for a long time without water(they dont store water in their humps, but they lose very little through urination and sweating). * The ability totolerate body temperaturesup to 42C. * Slit-like nostrils and two rows of eyelashesto help keep the sand out. Desert plants Cacti are well adapted for survival in the desert. They have * Stems that can store water. Widespread root systems that can collect water from a large area. In addition,cacti have spines instead of leaves. These minimise the surface area and so reduce water loss bytranspiration. The spines also protect the cacti from animals that might eat them. Other adaptations Animals and plants may have specific features that adapt them to their environment. These include barbs and spines, poisons and warning colours that deter predators and herbivores. Some harmless species may even resemble a poisonous or dangerous species to increase their chances of survival. Characteristi cs and salmagundi genetical information from one species can be transferred to another species using genetic engineering. discriminating breeding, also called artificial endurance, involves people taking charge of selection to produce new varieties of various species. A mix is a type of a particular species that is different in some clear way from other varieties of that species. The characteristics of a species can be used to classify the species. This is sometimes difficult to do. Genetic engineering Genetic engineering is also called genetic modification (orGM). It is not the same as cloning.Although cloning techniques are used in genetic engineering, the two things should not be confused. The table shows some of the differences. Cloning Genetic engineering Produces exact copies. Produces a unique set of genes. Genes copied within the same species. Genes can be swapped across species. Selective breeding Natural selection Species gradually evolve by a process of natural se lection. The individuals in any population with the inherited features best suited to the environment in which they live are most likely to survive and reproduce. When they do, they pass on the genetic information for these features to their offspring.Over time, a species can change its appearance and may even become a new species, unable to reproduce successfully with individuals of the original species. Artificial selection Selective breeding, also called artificial selection, involves people taking charge of selection to produce new varieties of various species. A variety is a type of a particular species that is different in some clear way from other varieties of that species. For example, pedigree dogs come in piles of different varieties (or breeds) they may be different colours and sizes, but they are all still dogs.Suppose you wanted a variety of cow that produced a lot of milk. This is what you could do * choose or select the cows in your flock that produce the most milk * only let these cows reproduce * select the offspring that produce the most milk * only let these offspring reproduce * keep repeating the process of selection and breeding until you achieve your destination The key here is to identify the feature you want, and only breed from the individuals that have that feature. Here are some examples of what selective breeding can produce * hens that lay big eggs of a particular colour cattle that produce lots of meat * tomato plants that produce lots of tomatoes * crops that are resistant to certain plant diseases Changing the characteristics of a species The characteristics of a species can be changed by * natural selection * selective breeding * genetic engineering. The table shows some differences between these. Natural selection Selective breeding Genetic engineering Number of generations needed for change very many many one Human intervention not needed needed needed Desired outcome known? no yes yes New species formed? yes no noNot es This is the mechanism of change in Darwins theory of phylogenesis This is how new varieties or breeds are usually produced Genetic information can come from the same species or from a different one In selective breeding and genetic engineering, there is a goal or desired outcome. For example, we may wish to produce a variety of cow capable of producing a lot of milk, or a bacterium capable of producing insulin. There is no goal in natural selection although we find that particular species are well adapted to their environments, natural selection does not know what the species should be like.Individuals that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive to reproduce, and so pass on their characteristics to the next generation, than those that are poorly suited. Classification You will remember from your Key Stage 3 studies that species with similar characteristics are put into groups, and that this is called classification. Remind yourself of the basics of clas sification by lookinghere. Kingdoms The first rank in this system is called a kingdom. There are five kingdoms, based upon what an organisms cells are like 1. nimals (all multicellular animals) 2. plants (all green plants) 3. fungi (moulds, mushrooms, yeast) 4. prokaryotes (bacteria, blue-green algae) 5. protoctists (Amoeba, Paramecium) Further divisions There are several further ranks before we reach a particular species. In order, these are * kingdom * phylum * class * order * family * genus * species For example,lionshave the following classification * kingdom animal * phylum vertebrate * class mammal * order carniverous * family cat * genus big cat * species lion Difficulties with classificationIt can beeasyto classify a species. For example, we areHomo sapiens. Classification of species rank classification notes kingdom animals phylum chordates animals with backbones class mammals animals that are warm-blooded, have lungs and body hair, produce milk and give birth to li ve young order primates ape-like animals family hominids human-like animals genus homo humans species sapiens modern humans It can also bedifficultto classify a certain organism. For example, the single-celled organism called Euglena has some confusing characteristics.It has * chloroplasts, like a plant * no cell wall, like an animal * a flagellum to swim with, like some bacteria A fifth kingdom, called the protoctists, was made for organisms like Euglena. The Heart The heart requires its own constant blood supply in order to keep beating and this is delivered through the coronary arteries. Genetic and modus vivendi factors can lead to the coronary arteries becoming blocked, and an increased risk of heart disease. The circulatory system Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the bodyscells, and waste products away from them.The circulatory system consists of * the heart, which is the muscular pump that keeps the blood moving * the arteries, which carry blood away from the heart * the veins, which return blood to the heart * the capillaries, which are tiny blood vessels that are close to the bodys cells The diagram outlines the circu-latory system. To make things clear, oxygenated blood is shown in red, and deoxygenated blood in blue. Arteries and veins The arteries carry blood from the heart, while veins return blood to it. With both, their structure is related to their function. ArteriesBlood in the arteries is under high pressure generated by the heart. The arteries have * thick outer walls * thick layers of muscle and elastic fibres Veins The blood in veins is under lower pressure than the blood in arteries. The veins have * thin walls * thin layers of muscle and elastic fibres Unlike arteries, veins have one-way valves in them to keep the blood moving in the correct direction. The heart The heart is a muscular organ. It keeps beating at about 70 times per minute. You can see how it pumps the blood to the lungs and the rest of the body by studying this anima tion.The muscle cells in the heart need a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, and for their waste products to be removed. So the heart requires its own blood supply in order to keep beating. Blood vessels called thecoronary arteriessupply blood to the heart muscles. If they become blocked, aheart attackcan happen. Heart attacks A heart attack can happen because 1. Fatty deposits build up in the coronary arteries. 2. A blood clot can form on a fatty deposit. 3. The blood clot can block a coronary artery. 4. Some heart muscle cells do not get the oxygen and nutrients they need. 5. These cells start to die.Causes of heart disease Heart disease is not usually caused by micro-organisms. It is caused by * genetic factors, which show as a family archives of heart disease * lifestyle factors Heart disease is more common in the UK than in non-industrialised countries, and many other indust-rialised nations. This is due to lifestyle factorsincluding * smoking * lack of regular exercise * stress leading to a fast heart rate * drinking a lot of alcohol * poor diet A lack of exercise and a diet that is high in salt and saturated fat cause people to * become overweight * have high blood pressure have high levels of cholesterol in their blood These factors contribute to an increased risk of heart disease. Extra Sex hormones Changes occur at puberty because of sex hormones produced by the testes in boys, and the ovaries in girls. Some changes happen to everyone, both boys and girls, while others happen in one sex only. Here are some changes that happen to both boys and girls * pubic hair grows * underarm hair grows Here are some changes that happen to boys only * voice breaks gets deeper * hair grows on face and body * body becomes more muscular * testes and penis get bigger testes start to produce sperm cells Here are some changes that happen to girls only * hips get wider * breasts develop * ovaries start to release egg cells periods start Fertility in humans can be controlled by the artificial use of sex hormones, including contraceptive pills and fertility drugs. Competition Different species struggle to survive and breed. The size of a predator population depends on the size of the prey population, and the reverse is true as well. Mutualism benefits both species involved in the relationship, but parasitism only benefits the parasite, not the host.Habitats have limited amounts of the resources needed by living organisms. Organisms mustcompetewith others in order to get enough of these resources to survive. If they are unsuccessful and cannot move to another habitat, they will die. Animals Some of the resources that animals compete for * food * water * space Animals may also compete for mates so that they can reproduce. Plants Remember that plants make their own food usingphoto-synthesis, so they do not compete for food. Here are some of the things that plants do compete for * light * water space * mineral salts Human beings Human beings are very successful organisms. We compete with animals for food resources, and we compete with both animals and plants for space and water. The northward cycle Seventy-nine per cent of the air around us is nitrogen. Living things need nitrogen to make proteins, but they cannot get it directly from the air because nitrogen gas is tooun oxidizableto be used to make new compounds within an organism. Plants can take up and use nitrogen when it is in a morereactiveform for example, innitratesorammonium salts.Changing nitrogen into a more reactive substance is callednitrogen recompenseation. Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation happens in three different ways The energy in a lightning bolt can split nitrogen molecules in the air, allowing each nitrogen atom toreactwith oxygen to formnitrogen oxides. The rain washes these oxides to the ground, where they formnitrates. * The Haber Processis used by industry to produce ammonia from nitrogen. Ammonia is then used to make the fertiliser that far mers spread on the soil to feed their crops. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in both the soil and root nodules of leguminous plants fix nitrogen into a form that can be used by plants. When plants are eaten by animals, the nitrogen compounds are passed on. Nitrogen compounds are returned to the soil by excretion and egestion from animals, or when plants and animals die and decay. The nitrogen compounds returned in this way arechanged backto nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria which live in the soil. Thiscompletes the cycle, so that the percentage of nitrogen in the air remains constant. The nitrogen cycle